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Review Causes of the Spanish-American WarCauses of the Spanish-American War Major Naval engagements of the WarMajor Naval engagements of the War Lessons learnedLessons learned US Overseas possessions acquiredUS Overseas possessions acquired War Plan OrangeWar Plan Orange US Naval focus US Naval focus Panama CanalPanama Canal

Lesson 13: The U.S. Navy, World War I and Prologue

Learning Objectives Understand the goals of the Great White FleetUnderstand the goals of the Great White Fleet Understand capital ship development in the prewar periodUnderstand capital ship development in the prewar period Know the events leading to the entry of the United States into World War I.Know the events leading to the entry of the United States into World War I. Comprehend U.S. strategy and diplomacy in World War I.Comprehend U.S. strategy and diplomacy in World War I. Comprehend the effect of the events of World War I on Mahanian theory.Comprehend the effect of the events of World War I on Mahanian theory.

Remember our Themes! The Navy as an Instrument of Foreign PolicyThe Navy as an Instrument of Foreign Policy Interaction between Congress and the NavyInteraction between Congress and the Navy Interservice RelationsInterservice Relations TechnologyTechnology LeadershipLeadership Strategy and TacticsStrategy and Tactics Evolution of Naval DoctrineEvolution of Naval Doctrine

War Plans War Plan YellowWar Plan Yellow –Dealt with war in China - specifically, the defense of Beijing and relief of Shanghai during the Second Sino-Japanese War. War Plan GreenWar Plan Green –War with Mexico or what was known as "Mexican Domestic Intervention" in order to defeat rebel forces and establish a pro-American government. War Plan Green was officially canceled in War Plan IndigoWar Plan Indigo –Occupation of Iceland. In 1941, while Denmark was under German occupation, the US actually did occupy Iceland, relieving British units during the Battle of the Atlantic. War Plan PurpleWar Plan Purple –Dealt with invading a South American republic. War Plan VioletWar Plan Violet –Latin America. War Plan WhiteWar Plan White –White dealt with a domestic uprising in the US, and later evolved to Operation Garden Plot, the general US military plan for civil disturbances and peaceful protests. Parts of War Plan White were used to deal with the Bonus Expeditionary Force in Communist insurgents were considered the most likely threat by the authors of War Plan White.

War Plans War Plan BlackWar Plan Black – War with Germany. The best-known version of Black was conceived as a contingency plan during World War I in case France fell and the Germans attempted to seize French possessions in the Caribbean Sea or launch an attack on the eastern seaboard. War Plan Gray War Plan Gray –Invading a Caribbean republic. War Plan BrownWar Plan Brown –Uprising in the Philippines. War Plan TanWar Plan Tan –Intervention in Cuba. War Plan RedWar Plan Red –Plan for Great Britain (with a sub variant Crimson Plan for Canada) War Plan Orange.War Plan Orange. –Plan for Japan

Unconfirmed War Plans War Plan Gray: AzoresWar Plan Gray: Azores War Plan Brown: IndonesiaWar Plan Brown: Indonesia War Plan Ruby: India ( in War Plan Red, India is Ruby)War Plan Ruby: India ( in War Plan Red, India is Ruby) War Plan Scarlet: Australia ( in War Plan Red, Australia is Scarlet)War Plan Scarlet: Australia ( in War Plan Red, Australia is Scarlet) War Plan Pink: for the Soviet UnionWar Plan Pink: for the Soviet Union War Plan Gold: War with France and Caribbean possessions.War Plan Gold: War with France and Caribbean possessions. War Plan Citron: BrazilWar Plan Citron: Brazil War Plan Lemon: PortugalWar Plan Lemon: Portugal War Plan Olive: SpainWar Plan Olive: Spain War Plan Emerald: Ireland in conjunction with War Plan Red.War Plan Emerald: Ireland in conjunction with War Plan Red. War Plan Garnet: New Zealand ( in War Plan Red, New Zealand is Garnet)War Plan Garnet: New Zealand ( in War Plan Red, New Zealand is Garnet) War Plan Silver: ItalyWar Plan Silver: Italy

The Great White Fleet

President Theodore Roosevelt and Rear Admiral Robley D. “Fighting Bob” Evans Prior to the sailing of the Great White Fleet

Route of the Great White Fleet –

Technological Improvements The Rise of the Dreadnought:

Technology Improvements Improved gunnery:Improved gunnery: – Smokeless powder. HMS Dreadnought HMS Dreadnought –First all “big-gun” battleship launched by Great Britain. –Makes all other battleships obsolete. Battle CruisersBattle Cruisers –Same armament as dreadnoughts but less armor. –Faster speeds. Destroyers - Vital part of fleet - protection from torpedoes.Destroyers - Vital part of fleet - protection from torpedoes. SubmarinesSubmarines – USS Holland – Diesel engines developed allow greater maneuverability. Radios - Improved communications.Radios - Improved communications.

HMS Dreadnought

Wright Brothers Kitty Hawk, North Carolina 17 December 1903

Eugene Ely USS Birmingham (CL 2) 14 November 1910

Dawn of Naval Aviation Wright Brothers -- Kitty Hawk, North Carolina: 1903Wright Brothers -- Kitty Hawk, North Carolina: 1903 Eugene ElyEugene Ely –First flight of an aircraft from a ship in –First landing of an aircraft on a ship in Glenn Curtiss - First seaplane landing Glenn Curtiss - First seaplane landing Lieutenant “Spuds” Ellyson: Naval Aviator #1.Lieutenant “Spuds” Ellyson: Naval Aviator #1. Royal Navy in a similar stage of development in aviation.Royal Navy in a similar stage of development in aviation.

Dawn of Naval Aviation Birthday of Naval Aviation: 8 May 1911.Birthday of Naval Aviation: 8 May –U.S. Navy purchases two Curtiss biplanes. Office of Naval Aeronautics established in 1914.Office of Naval Aeronautics established in Early naval aviation missions:Early naval aviation missions: –Scouting location of the enemy fleet. –Directing naval gunfire.

The Great War

Major Allied Powers US (beginning in 1917)US (beginning in 1917) Great BritainGreat Britain RussiaRussia FranceFrance Italy (partially)Italy (partially) Japan (Pacific)Japan (Pacific)

Major Central Powers GermanyGermany Austria-HungaryAustria-Hungary Ottoman EmpireOttoman Empire

“Entangling Alliances” Triple Entente (Allied Powers):Triple Entente (Allied Powers): Great Britain, Russian Empire, France Plus: Italy ( ) U.S. (1917) Japan (Pacific) Triple Alliance (Central Powers):Triple Alliance (Central Powers): German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman (Turk) Empires Plus:Bulgaria Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassinated: June 1914.Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassinated: June – Bosnia part of Austro-Hungarian Empire. – Serbia - Russia Defense Pact.

Naval Confrontation British Royal Navy –Home Fleet –Grand Fleet German Imperial Navy –High Seas Fleet

British Royal Navy First Lord of the AdmiraltyFirst Lord of the Admiralty –Similar to U.S. Secretary of the Navy. – Winston Churchill First Sea LordFirst Sea Lord –Similar to today’s U.S. Chief of Naval Operations. – Admiral Sir John Fisher Grand FleetGrand Fleet – Admiral Sir John Jellicoe

Strategic Goals of Grand Fleet Sea-lift of British Army to France.Sea-lift of British Army to France. “Distant” blockade of Germany.“Distant” blockade of Germany. –Avoid German mines and torpedo boats near the coast. – Scapa Flow - Main Grand Fleet base in the Orkney Islands. Goal: Destroy High Seas Fleet in a large engagement.Goal: Destroy High Seas Fleet in a large engagement.

German Imperial Navy High Seas FleetHigh Seas Fleet – Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz – Numerically inferior to the British Grand Fleet. North Sea defenses:North Sea defenses: – Mines. – U-boats (unterseeboots) - submarines. Not used for commerce raiding early in war. Goal:Goal: – Defeat portions of the Grand Fleet in small engagements. “Fleet in Being”“Fleet in Being” – Threatens Allied operations by its presence in port. Ineffective commerce raiding by German cruisers.Ineffective commerce raiding by German cruisers.

Major Naval and Maritime Events February Germany announces unrestricted submarine warfareFebruary Germany announces unrestricted submarine warfare May Sinking of LusitaniaMay Sinking of Lusitania Last German commerce raiding cruisers destroyedLast German commerce raiding cruisers destroyed ANZAC landing at Gallipoli1915- ANZAC landing at Gallipoli March 1916 Sussex pledgeMarch 1916 Sussex pledge Battle of JutlandBattle of Jutland

Gallipoli Campaign German-led Ottoman Turk FleetGerman-led Ottoman Turk Fleet – Closes Dardanelles - Entrance to the Black Sea. – Allied line of communication with Russia is cut. Winston Churchill:Winston Churchill: – Advocate of amphibious assault on Gallipoli Peninsula. – Objective: Constantinople. Admiral Sir John FisherAdmiral Sir John Fisher –First Sea Lord resigns in protest. DardanellesDardanelles – Mines in sea lanes. – Guns emplaced on shore covering the straits manned by the Ottoman Turk Army.

Gallipoli Campaign Winston Churchill proposes opening supply route to Russia through the Black Sea.

18 March 1915 Naval Action

Allied Retreat from Gallipoli November-December 1915

Failure of Allied Assault ANZAC Army CorpsANZAC Army Corps –Mustafa Kemal commands Turk counter-attack. Lessons learned in defeat:Lessons learned in defeat: –Unity of command. –Control of local waters. –Element of surprise. –Rehearsal. –Beach reconnaissance. –Shore bombardment. –Specialized landing craft. –Ship-to-shore movement. –Aggressive exploitation of the beachhead. –Commitment of reserves. Winston Churchill resigns in failure.Winston Churchill resigns in failure.

Battle of Dogger Bank- 1915

Battle of Jutland

Greatest naval battle to dateGreatest naval battle to date Minor strategic importanceMinor strategic importance Tactical lessonTactical lesson –Speed and long-range gunfire outstripped the commander’s means of observation and control of own forces Only fleet action of warOnly fleet action of war –Seemed to fit Mahanian prescription –British unhappy: not Nelsonian “Annihilation” –Admiral Nimitz says it was the battle most studied by NWC in interwar years ( )

Battle of Jutland 31 May - 1 June 1916 High Seas Fleet sorties to attack merchant shipping to Norway.High Seas Fleet sorties to attack merchant shipping to Norway. Jellicoe intercepts in the North Sea with Grand Fleet.Jellicoe intercepts in the North Sea with Grand Fleet. Battle cruisers used for scouting.Battle cruisers used for scouting. Jellicoe’s Grand Fleet “Crosses the T” of the High Seas Fleet.Jellicoe’s Grand Fleet “Crosses the T” of the High Seas Fleet. High Seas Fleet maneuvers back to port at night.High Seas Fleet maneuvers back to port at night.

Battle of Jutland Largest naval battle to date ends in a tactical draw.Largest naval battle to date ends in a tactical draw. – Only large fleet action of the war. – Last great battle between battleship fleets. – Jellicoe fails to win a victory. Afraid of stern chase over mines/submarines. Turned away from torpedoes. Would not risk fighting at night. –Minor strategic importance to the outcome of the war. Tactical lesson: Speed and long-range gunfire outstripped the commander's means of observation and control of forces.Tactical lesson: Speed and long-range gunfire outstripped the commander's means of observation and control of forces.

Course of the War Ground war in France = continued stalemate.Ground war in France = continued stalemate. German U-boats continue commerce raiding.German U-boats continue commerce raiding. – Very effective, especially in Mediterranean Sea. – February Resume Unrestricted Submarine Warfare. – Sussex sunk March Wilson protests again. – Tirpitz relieved of duty. Kaiser Wilhelm imposes restrictions on U-boat attacks again. British raids on German coast.British raids on German coast. New German High Seas Fleet commander:New German High Seas Fleet commander: – Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer – Commences raids on British coast.

Unterseeboots

Commerce Raiding German U-boats threaten to cut off all maritime supply of Great Britain.

U.S. Enters World War I Germany announces Unrestricted Submarine Warfare. (February 1915)Germany announces Unrestricted Submarine Warfare. (February 1915) Lusitania (May 1915)Lusitania (May 1915) Sussex (March 1916)Sussex (March 1916) Germany resumes Unrestricted Submarine Warfare. (January 1917)Germany resumes Unrestricted Submarine Warfare. (January 1917) – Calculated risk: U.S. unable to affect war for at least one year. Need to cut off British food supplies. U.S. declares war. (April 1917)U.S. declares war. (April 1917) U.S. Navy - First rate power, BUT:U.S. Navy - First rate power, BUT: – Unprepared for anti-submarine warfare. – Planned for fleet engagement in Caribbean Sea.

Backing Up US Naval strategy in World War I– period of Neutrality (August )US Naval strategy in World War I– period of Neutrality (August ) Woodrow Wilson: The United States will remain:Woodrow Wilson: The United States will remain: –“neutral in thought and deed.” Favorable balance of payments for U.S. with Europe.Favorable balance of payments for U.S. with Europe. – Desire to trade with Allied and Central Powers.

U.S. in World War I Naval matters enter American consciousness.Naval matters enter American consciousness. – Wilson converts to pro-Navy viewpoint. – Forty-eight capital ships planned for U.S. Navy by Naval Construction act of 1916 Impact of Jutland Assistant Secretary of the NavyAssistant Secretary of the Navy –Franklin Delano Roosevelt –Experiences will influence World War II policies Causes for U.S. entrance on side of Allies.Causes for U.S. entrance on side of Allies. – Shift in European balance of power. – Unrestricted Submarine Warfare. – Cultural and economic ties to Allied nations. – Wilson sees chance for peace in outcome

…A word on Bureaucracy Naval leadership wants Naval General StaffNaval leadership wants Naval General Staff –Rear Admiral Bradley Fiske, Captain William S. Sims SECNAV Josephs DanielsSECNAV Josephs Daniels “Fiske-Hobson” measure, Act of Congress 3 March 1915 creates CNO“Fiske-Hobson” measure, Act of Congress 3 March 1915 creates CNO –Captain William S. Benson

Course of the War U.S. Navy PlansU.S. Navy Plans –Atlantic (defeat the submarine) Troop Transport Reduce Emphasis on battle ships Submarine chasers Merchant Ships Mine laying – Integrated into convoy system merchants and 6-8 destroyers. Change from “hunt-and-kill” patrols to a convoy system. Rear Admiral William Sowden Sims, USN - convoy proponent. Admiral Sir John JellicoeAdmiral Sir John Jellicoe –Appointed First Sea Lord, Chief of Naval Staff. – Convoys proved to be more effective in countering U- boats.

“Germany’s revival of guerre de course had failed because the US Navy, with great reluctance, temporarily abandoned its capital ship construction program to send to sea an overwhelming number of transports and escorting submarine destroyers, which were hardly less fragile or more seaworthy than their underwater prey.”“Germany’s revival of guerre de course had failed because the US Navy, with great reluctance, temporarily abandoned its capital ship construction program to send to sea an overwhelming number of transports and escorting submarine destroyers, which were hardly less fragile or more seaworthy than their underwater prey.”

End of the War Bolshevik Revolution in Russia - October 1917Bolshevik Revolution in Russia - October 1917 – Peace with Germany causes Eastern Front to disappear. French Field Marshal Ferdinand FochFrench Field Marshal Ferdinand Foch – Supreme Allied Commander (including U.S. forces). German offensive repulsed at Second Battle of the Marne.German offensive repulsed at Second Battle of the Marne. Major General John A. Lejeune, USMC assumes command of the Second U.S. Army Division Major General John A. Lejeune, USMC assumes command of the Second U.S. Army Division –First time a Marine officer commands an Army Division.. German Army defeated - morale becomes very low.German Army defeated - morale becomes very low. – German sailors become mutinous. 11 November war ends on “Armistice Day”.11 November war ends on “Armistice Day”. –Now celebrated as Veterans’ Day in the U.S.

New Weapons of Naval Warfare SubmarinesSubmarines – Germany lost 187 U-boats, however: Sank 5,234 merchant ships. Sank 10 battleships, 20 destroyers, and 9 submarines. –Allied & Neutral Ships Lost: ,439 1,035 Aviation – Anti-submarine warfare. – Early attempts at power projection: Strikes on German naval bases. – Did not practice anti-surface warfare.

Effect of World War I on Mahanian Theory Support in two areas:Support in two areas: – Commercial antagonism and rivalry cause war. – Faith in the battle fleet for command of the sea. Unrestricted Submarine Warfare's implications are ignored.Unrestricted Submarine Warfare's implications are ignored. – Commerce raiding can affect the course of the war. – Importance of convoy system to protect against submarine attacks.