New Frontiers / Rebellion and Reaction Civil rights stirrings In the late 1930s the NAACP began to test the constitutionality of racial segregation.

New Frontiers / Rebellion and Reaction In Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, the Supreme Court ruled that segregation was no longer allowed. A year later, when nothing was done, they ordered that it be done with all deliberate speed. Very few states acted on this order.

New Frontiers / Rebellion and Reaction Rosa Parks A Montgomery, Alabama, policeman fingerprints Parks after she was arrested for organizing a boycott of the city’s buses in February 1956.

New Frontiers / Rebellion and Reaction Montgomery, Alabama Martin Luther King Jr., here facing arrest for leading a civil rights march, advocated nonviolent resistance to racial segregation.

New Frontiers / Rebellion and Reaction Eisenhower would support the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957, which created the Civil Rights Commission in the Department of Justice. Due to the lack of enforcement power in this bill, it was not as successful as African Americans would have liked, but it did lay the foundation for future legislation. Its successor, the act of 1960, required federal courts to register African Americans. It too lacked the teeth to be enforced.

New Frontiers / Rebellion and Reaction In 1957 the governor of Arkansas mobilized the National Guard to prevent nine African American students from entering Little Rock High School as decreed by a federal court. When a confrontation turned violent, Ike sent in one thousand soldiers to protect the students. They would remain there all year.

New Frontiers / Rebellion and Reaction How is television a game changer in terms of the information people receive?

New Frontiers / Rebellion and Reaction Sit-in at Woolworth’s lunch counter, Greensboro, North Carolina February 1, 1960 When four African American college students sat at a white-only counter and refused to move, the concept of the “sit-in” was born

New Frontiers / Rebellion and Reaction Freedom Riders

New Frontiers / Rebellion and Reaction “I Have a Dream,” August 28, 1963 Protesters in the March on Washington make their way to the Lincoln Memorial, where Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his now-famous speech.

New Frontiers / Rebellion and Reaction Great Society initiatives Although there were many programs in the Great Society that were successful, a good percentage of them were ill-conceived and poorly funded. As a result, they did not have the impact they intended or had unexpected effects, such as lowering the unemployment rate by paying welfare.

New Frontiers / Rebellion and Reaction The Civil Rights Act of 1964 President Johnson reaches to shake hands with Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. after presenting the civil rights leader with one of the pens used to sign the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

FREEDOM SUMMER, 1964 Robert Moses, an African American, Harvard-educated New Yorker, led a march on Mississippi’s capital to protest that state’s denial of the right to vote to minorities. His group’s subsequent actions would lead to a revival of the KKK in the South. Congress passed the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which ensured all citizens had the right to vote. It abolished literacy tests and other state policies designed at keeping African Americans from voting.

FREEDOM SUMMER, 1964 Over the course of the ten-week project: four civil rights workers were killed (one in a head-on collision) at least three Mississippi blacks were murdered because of their support for the civil rights movement four people were critically wounded 80 Freedom Summer workers were beaten 1,062 people were arrested (out-of- state volunteers and locals) 37 churches were bombed or burned 30 Black homes or businesses were bombed or burned

New Frontiers / Rebellion and Reaction Groups of protestors supporting black power took to the streets, and one of their leaders was Malcolm X. He would be assassinated by a rival faction of Black Muslims in A race riot in Watts, a neighborhood in California, led off a summer of racial violence in Malcolm X Malcolm X was the black power movement’s most influential spokesman.

New Frontiers / Rebellion and Reaction The youth of the 1950s were not the young adults of the 1960s. They had not experienced major depressions or wars as their forebears had. They fell into the spheres of the civil rights movements, which led them to apply the demands by African Americans to other groups, such as women, Native Americans, homosexuals, and Hispanics. In 1966, the draft was modified to make them eligible. This would lead to the birth of the New Left in the antiwar movement.

New Frontiers / Rebellion and Reaction

Other Causes Labor Cesar Chavez and grape boycott Native Americans Poverty and alcoholism on the reservation Environment