Essentials of Psychology 5e Robert S. Feldman Prepared by: John E. Story, Psy.D. University of Kentucky Lexington Community College

Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychology It is always helpful for students to brainstorm how many areas the field of psychology touches in their life. The faithful question of “where do you find Psychologists?” helps to open the doorway to the diversity that is inherent to the field. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Psychology The scientific study of behavior and mental processes As pointed out in chapter 1, it is important to emphasize the methodical approach the field of psychology uses in order to explore various aspects of human and animal behavior. The images roughly represent the diversity of information to be covered in the Feldman text – From basic tenets of research to the central concepts of social psychology the field attempts to understand the underlying dynamics of human and animal behavior and apply its knowledge in order to explain, predict, modify, and improve the lives of people and the world in which we live in. It is also important to outline the “general” interpretation of behavior which includes observable events, as well as, thoughts, feelings, perceptions, reasoning processes, memories, and biological activities. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

The Subfields of Psychology: Psychology’s Family Tree Biopsychology Specializes in the biological bases of behavior Sensation, perception, learning and thinking Experimental psychology Methodological study of sensing, perceiving, learning and thinking Cognitive psychology Emphasis on higher mental processes As pointed out in chapter 1, biopsychology focuses on biological bases of behavior and studies a broad range of topics such as sites in the brain and the muscular tremors of people affected by Parkinson’s disease It is helpful to emphasize that experimental psychology provides a template for research for all areas of psychology Cognitive psychology impacts a variety of aspects of our behavior as evidenced by the areas outlined in chapter 1: thinking, memory, reasoning, problem solving, judging, decision making, and language Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

The Subfields of Psychology Understanding change and individual differences Developmental psychology Changes in behavior over the life span (womb to tomb) Personality psychology Examines consistencies in people’s behavior over time and traits that differentiate us from one another Developmental psychology incorporates the full life span, from heredity to the tomb this area investigates how we grow Personality psychology focuses on consistencies in our behavior – it is noteworthy to examine the relationship of this area with developmental psychology and clinical psychology Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

The Subfields of Psychology Physical and mental health Health psychology Explores relationship between psychological factors and physical ailments or disease Clinical psychology Investigates diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders Health psychology seeks to provide an “ounce of prevention” to avoid “years of cure”. Clinical psychology represents a diversity of thought ranging from Psychoanalytic approaches to mental health to cognitive behavioral approaches. The common core being the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

The Subfields of Psychology Understanding our social networks Social psychology Studies how people are affected by others Cross-cultural psychology Focuses on the similarities and differences in psychological functioning across cultures and ethnic groups Social psychology examines how people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others. It is helpful to differentiate between this area and the field of sociology which examines social behavior. Chapter 1 identifies child-rearing and perceptions of academic success as being examples of cross cultural psychology. This may also be applied to intelligence, psychotherapy, and family. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

The Subfields of Psychology New frontiers Clinical neuropsychology Focuses on relationships between biological factors and psychological disorders Evolutionary psychology Examines influence of our genetic heritage and our behavior While discussing the advent of clinical neuropsychology, it is noteworthy to examine the risks and benefits for clinical psychologist to prescribe medication. Proponents view psychologist as being ideal “gate keepers” for the use of medication while others feel prescription privileges would compromise “talk therapy” Evolutionary psychology examines the impact of our genetic heritage upon our behavior, it is helpful to mention the notion of depression, alcoholism, schizophrenia, etc. as having a strong genetic component As a means to wrap up the diversity of the field, chapter 1 provides information concerning the demographics for the variety of settings in which psychologist work. Such positions as Clinical Psychologist in hospitals, clinics, and private practice as well as educators, researchers, industrial organizational, and school psychologist just to name a few. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Educating Psychologist Doctoral Degrees Ph.D. & Psy.D. Master’s Degree Bachelor’s Degree As pointed out in the chapter, about a third of people working in the field of psychology have a master’s degree as their highest degree, which is typically earned following 2 to 3 years of graduate work. It is helpful to point out the licensing/certification laws of your state that allow a psychologist to practice independently in the clinical setting. It is also important to outline the application of a psychology degree to a wide variety of fields, e.g. sales, etc. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Psychology’s Roots Structuralism Early History Gestalt Psychology Focused on the basic building blocks of perception, consciousness, thinking, and emotions Introspection Early History Trephining “hollow tubes” Bumps on the head When discussing the “early” history of mental health, it is important to note the progression of understanding human behavior. Also, examining the notion of boring holes in order to let evil spirits escape, hollow tubes transporting evil spirits, and phrenology’s attempt to understand personality characteristics. Compare an individual that sought treatment for depression during such times and a person who would seek treatment today and be exposed to talk therapy, medication, and/or electroconvulsive therapy Emphasize how Wilhelm Wundt had no prior groundwork when he opened his psychology laboratory in Liepzig Germany in 1879. It is also helpful to walk students through a lesson of introspection via progressive relaxation exercise As pointed out in the chapter, psychologist began to challenge Wundt’s approach (important to point out how this process continues today in terms of developing psychological theories) and the emergence of functionalism Functionalism opened the doorway to a variety of research – such as comparative psychology Gestalt psychology is rooted in perception but important to point out how it has been applied to psychotherapy which will be discussed in chapter 17 Gestalt Psychology “the whole is different from the sum of its parts” Functionalism Moved from structure to what the mind does and how behavior functions Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Founding Mother’s of Psychology Leta Stetter Hollingworth Child development and women’s issues Mary Calkins First female in the APA Karen Horney Social and cultural aspects to personality June Etta Downey Personality trait theorist Anna Freud As noted in the chapter, it is important to point out that psychology was not immune to the constraints for women of the time. Despite such hurdles, Hollingworth, Calkins, Horney, Downey, and Anna Freud were major contributors to the field. Women continue to play a prominent role in modern day psychology Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Today’s Perspectives Biological Humanistic Psychodynamic Cognitive Biological bases of behavior Humanistic Free will Natural tendency to be in control of our lives Psychodynamic Behavioral influences of inner forces The biological perspective examines a host of biological functions ranging from the neuron to polygenetic factors that influence sophisticated behaviors Psychodynamic perspective was pioneered by Sigmund Freud and represents the first “talk therapy” approach to mental health – helpful to note that this was a major advance from the days of trephining The cognitive perspective seeks to explain how our ways of thinking about the world influence our behavior As noted in the chapter, the behavioral perspective was a direct retaliation of psychodynamic theory – focusing on observable behavior only, the behaviorist rejected any notion of the unconscious and adopting the philosophy “what you see is what you get” The humanistic perspective adopted the philosophy that we all posses a natural tendency to grow, develop, and be in control of our lives Cognitive How people think, understand, and know about the world Behavioral Focus on observable events Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Psychology’s Key Issues Nature versus nurture How much of our behavior is due to heredity and how much is due to environment? Conscious versus unconscious How much of our behavior is produced by forces of which we are fully aware? Having students apply such issues to a variety of areas within psychology, e. g. clinical psychology, evolutionary psychology, developmental psychology etc. Having students begin to examine their own lives based upon such issues also helps to tease out the finer points of such issues Observable behavior versus internal mental processes Should psychology only focus on what it can see? Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Psychology’s Key Issues Free will versus determinism How much of behavior is a result of free will? Individual differences versus universal principles How much of our behavior is a consequence of our unique and special qualities? A discussion concerning consistencies in our personality helps to focus upon the issue of free will vs. determinism. Also examining this issue from a mental health standpoint adds to the discussion – can we get better or are we trapped in a lifetime of abnormality? Such issues as the universal nature of emotions helps to identify with this concept Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Psychology’s Future Increase in specialization Focus on prevention Greater influence on issues of public interest Increase in diversity Have the class identify areas that they feel psychology should address Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

The Scientific Method The approach used by psychologists to systematically acquire knowledge and understanding about behavior and other phenomena of interest Research ties in all areas of the field of psychology. As pointed out in the chapter, research consists of three main steps: 1. Identifying questions of interest, 2. Formulating an explanation, and 3. Carrying out research designed to lend support to or refute the explanation Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Scientific Method: The Process Carry Out Research: Operationalize hypothesis Select a research method Collect data Analyze the data Formulate an Explanation: Specify a theory Develop a hypothesis Identify Questions of Interest It is important to point out that the scientific method provides an objective approach to examining human and animal behavior. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Scientific Method: Developing Explanations Theories Broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest Hypothesis A prediction stated in a way that allows it to be tested As noted in Feldman, theories are “explanations” that may be supported by research or refuted. Hypothesis acts as “educated guesses” concerning theories or observations that shall be investigated during the course of research Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Scientific Method: Conducting Research Systematic inquiry aimed at the discovery of new knowledge Research provides a means to understand the degree to which theories and hypothesis are accurate The “how to make a peanut butter sandwich” exercise is a helpful means to exemplify the importance of operationalizing variables in the study. This demonstration is done by having a volunteer in the class turn their desk around and then instruct you on how to make a peanut butter sandwich. It helps to be literal as you begin to follow the instructions and make the sandwich with the materials you have brought Operationalization Process of translating a hypothesis into specific, testable procedures that can be measured and observed Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Research Methods Archival research Use of existing data in order to test a hypothesis Although archival research is relatively inexpensive, it does present its problems: the data may not be in a form that allows the researcher to test a hypothesis fully, the information may be incomplete, and the records needed may not exist Naturalistic observation provides an opportunity to observe natural behavior without intervention. Observer effect – the experimenter inadvertently being seen by the observed thereby influencing their behavior, and observer bias – tendency for an experimenter to be sensitive to supporting data are two shortcomings to overcome Naturalistic observation Observation of naturally occurring behavior without intervention Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Research Methods Survey research A sample of people are asked a series of questions about their behavior, thoughts, and attitudes in order to represent a larger population As pointed out in the chapter, a sample of people is drawn from a population of interest. The methods of choosing the sample is critical in order to fairly represent the population as a whole. Problems occur when you have an insufficient number and/or a self-selection bias Attrition and specificity of the questions are also major concerns in a survey Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Research Methods Case study An in-depth, intensive investigation of an individual or small group of people The book “Sybil” is a prime example of a case study. Case studies are beneficial in clinical psychology and often times include psychological testing. They are also helpful in the area of physiological psychology Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Research Methods Variables Behaviors, events, or other characteristics that can change, or vary in some way Correlational research The relationship between two sets of variables is examined to determine whether they are associated, or “correlated” Ranges from +1 to -1 Correlation does not mean “causation” Variables are any behavior that can “vary”. It is helpful to have students brainstorm how many behaviors fit this definition Correlational studies are helpful to identify variables that have some “co-relationship” but do not give any insights to cause effect relationships TV and aggression, studying and academic performance are helpful examples of positive correlation. Self-esteem and depression is a good example of negative correlation Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Research Methods Experiment The relationship between two (or more) variables is investigated by deliberately producing a change in one variable in a situation and observing the effects of that change on other aspects of the situation A psychological experiment is the only method of research that seeks to determine cause-effect relationships between variables Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Experimental Research Experimental manipulation The change that an experimenter deliberately produces in a situation Treatment The manipulation implemented by the experimenter Experimental group Any group receiving a treatment Control group A group that receives no treatment Experimental research is conducted under controlled conditions where the situation may be manipulated by the researcher The treatment is the independent variable of the experiment The dependent variable is the behavior you suspect will change under the influence of the treatment (independent variable) provided by the experimenter Two groups share the dependent variable and are only different in respect to which group receives the treatment The experimental group receives the treatment while the control group does not – the notion being that any changes that occur in the experimental group (as compared to the control group) is due to the treatment provided by the experimenter Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Experimental Research Independent variable The variable that is manipulated by the experimenter Dependent variable The variable that is measured and is expected to change as a result of changes caused by the the experimenter’s manipulation of the independent variable As previously discussed, the IV is what the experimenter believes will impact a change upon the dependent variable Helpful to reiterate the importance of developing an operational definition for both the IV and the DV Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Experimental Research: Final Step Random assignment to condition Participants are assigned to different experimental groups or “conditions” on the basis of chance and chance alone Significant outcome Use of statistical procedures in order to determine whether or not differences between groups are large enough to be significant Replication Repetition of findings using other procedures in other settings Random assignment of subjects prevents sampling bias Inferential statistics analyze the data collected during the course of the experiment in order to determine if the differences among the experimental and control group was significant Replication helps to support theories and/or research findings Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Research Challenges: Ethics Protection of participants from physical and mental harm The right of participants to privacy regarding their behavior The assurance that participation in research is completely voluntary The necessity of informing participants about the nature of procedures prior to participation in the experiment Informed consent Deception and debriefing Use the examples of the Nuremberg trials (Nazi experiments upon Jews), or the Tuskegee experiment (lack of informed consent on observing long term effects of STD’s on African-American males) to discuss the importance of maintaining ethical standards in research Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Research Challenges Choosing participants who represent the scope of human behavior Should animals be used in research? Representative samples are a critical aspect of psychological research that impact the applicability of the results It is important to emphasize the importance of animal ethics as outlined by the American Psychological Association Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Threats to Experiments Experimental bias Factors that distort how the independent variable affects the dependent variable in an experiment Experimenter expectations Participant expectations Placebo A false treatment, such as a pill, “drug”, or other substance without any significant chemical properties or active ingredient The unconscious tendency for researchers to be sensitive to their expectations during the course of research is offset by methods minimize bias – operational definitions, procedures, and formulating your hypothesis prior to the research A discussion of the placebo effect is aided by the examination of medication research – Physicians Desk Reference that use placebos in a “placebo control group” and examine reported side effects and benefits by subjects Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Becoming An Informed Consumer of Psychology What was the purpose of the research? How well was the study conducted? Are the results presented fairly? Having students examine the difference between professional journals and magazine articles helps to encourage critical thinking skills Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.