ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE: A Global Concern, 5th edition William P. Cunningham University of Minnesota Barbara Woodworth Saigo Saiwood Biology Resources

CHAPTER 1 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

What is Environmental Science? History of Environmental Science utilitarian conservation altruistic preservation

CURRENT CONDITIONS Planet Earth Environmental Dilemmas population food shortages energy pollution

A DIVIDED WORLD Rich vs. Poor North vs. South Developed countries vs. undeveloped countries First, Second, Third and Fourth World Countries

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Human Development Index Developmental Discrepancies basic social services education health care agrarian reform employment civil rights sustainable resource use Sustainable Development

ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES Neo-Malthusian Technological optimists/Promethean environmentalism “Cornucopian Fallacy” Lessons from the Past

CHAPTER 2 TOOLS FOR BUILDING A BETTER WORLD

Environmental Ethics and Philosophy Universal Ethical Principles Relativists Nihilists Utilitarians Modernism & Postmodernism

Values, Rights & Obligations Morals Animal Rights Inherent Value Instrumental Value

Worldviews and Ethical Perspectives Domination Stewardship Biocentrism Ecofeminism

Environmental Justice Environmental racism Toxic colonialism Is Nature fragile or resilient?

Science as a Way of Knowing Scientific Method Hypotheses Testing Indirect Scientific Evidence Technology and Progress Appropriate Technology

CHAPTER 3 MATTER, ENERGY, AND LIFE

From Atoms to Cells Atoms Molecules Organic Compounds Cells ions atomic number Molecules compound Organic Compounds carbon Cells

Energy Types and Qualities Kinetic Energy heat temperature Potential Energy Chemical Energy Conservation of Matter Thermodynamics 1st law 2nd law

Energy for Life Solar Energy Photosynthesis Chlorophyll cellular respiration

From Species to Ecosystems Population Communities biological community Ecosystems

Food Chains Productivity/biomass Food chain/food web Trophic level producers consumers Organisms herbivores carnivores omnivores

Material Cycles and Life Processes Carbon Cycle Nitrogen Cycle Phosphorus Cycle Sulfur Cycle

CHAPTER 4 BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES AND SPECIES INTERACTION

Critical Factors, Who Lives Where? Temperature Moisture levels Nutrient supply Soil chemistry Water chemistry

Natural Selection Adaptation Evolution HABITAT

SPECIES INTERACTIONS AND COMMUNITY DYNAMICS

Predation Predators parasites Pathogens Prey

Competition Intraspecific competition Interspecific competition Territoriality

Symbiosis Commensalism Mutualism

Community Properties Productivity Abundance and Diversity Complexity and Connectedness Resilience and Stability Structure Edges and Boundaries

Ecological Succession Primary Succession Secondary Succession Pioneer Species Ecological Development Climax Community Introduced Species and Community Change

CHAPTER 5 BIOMES, LANDSCAPES, RESOTRATION AND MANAGEMENT

Terrestrial Biomes Deserts Grasslands Tundra Conifer Forests Prairies Savannas Tundra Conifer Forests Evergreen Forests Tropical Forests Tropical Seasonal Forests

Aquatic Ecosystems Freshwater and Saline Ecosystems Estuaries and Wetlands Shorelines and Barrier Islands Coral reefs

Landscape Ecology Patchiness & Heterogeneity Landscape Dynamics

Restoration Ecology Rehabilitation Remediation Reclamation Re-creation Nature, self-healing

CHAPTER 6 POPULATION DYNAMICS

Population Growth Exponential Growth Geometric Growth Arithmetic Growth J Curve

Population Oscillations and Irruptive Growth Dieback Overshoot Irruptive or Malthusian growth

Growth to a Stable Population Logistic growth Environmental resistance

Strategies of Population Growth Malthusian Strategies Logistic Strategies

Factors affecting Population Natality, Fecundity, and Fertility Immigration Mortality and survivorship Age Structure Emigration Education

Factors Affecting Birth and Fertility Rates Education/affluence Importance of children to family labor force Urbanization Cost - raising and educating children Education & Employment opportunity - women Infant mortality rate Average marriage age Availability - pension Birth control Religious beliefs, tradition and culture

Factors Affecting Death Rate Nutrition Fewer infant deaths and increased longevity Health and technology

Teen Pregnancy in the USA Migration Immigration

Population Age Structure Ways of classifying Pre-reproductive age Reproductive age Post-reproductive age

Solutions Influencing Population Controlling Migration Reducing Birth Rates Economic development Family planning Economic rewards Empowering women Population Control Studies India China

Population Distribution Urbanization and Growth The future is urban Hyper-urbanization - LDCs The United States and other MDC’s Spatial patterns of development

CHAPTER 7 HUMAN POPULATIONS

Population Growth Birth Rates Over-population Technology and Ingenuity

Limits to Population Growth Malthusian checks Karl Marx Neo-Malthusian Technology solutions? Can More people be Beneficial?

Human Demography Fertility Birthrate Zero population growth Mortality and death rates Population growth rates Life span and life expectancy dependency ratio Emigration and Immigration

Population Growth: Opposition Pronatalist/Social Pressures Birth Reduction Pressures Education Birth control Economics

Demographic Transition Improved living conditions Development and Population Optimistic View Pessimistic View Social Justice View Ecojustice View Infant Mortality Women’s Rights

Family Planning & Fertility Control Birth Control Celibacy Mechanical barriers Surgery Chemicals Implantation of physical controls Abortion

CHAPTER 8 ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS

Classical Economics Diminished Returns Demand Supply Market Equilibrium Marginal Costs Price Elasticity

Neoclassical Economics Karl Marx E. F. Schumacher Ecological Economics steady-state economy

Resources, Capital and Reserves Resource Types Capital Resource Nonrenewable resources Renewable resources Intangible resources

Economic Resource Categories Proven resources Known resources Undiscovered resources Recoverable resources

Population, Technology, and Scarcity Market Efficiencies Increasing Environmental Carrying Capacity Economic Models Why Not Conserve Resources?

Natural Resource Accounting Gross National Product (GNP) Human Development Index (HDI) Non-market Values Cost/Benefit Ratios Green Business Jobs and the Environment

Sustainability Sustainable Development

CHAPTER 9 ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND TOXICOLOGY

Health Hazards Infectious Diseases Respiratory diseases pneumonia tuberculosis influenza whooping cough

Malaria Parasitic Mematodes Schistosomiasis Onchocerciasis (river blindness) Trachoma STD’s

Toxic Chemicals Irritants Respiratory fibrotic agents Asphyxiants Allergens Neurotoxins Mutagens Teratogens Carcinogens

Natural and Synthetic Toxin Physical Agents Trauma Diet radiation Trauma stress Diet

Chemical Hazards and Toxicology Dose and response LD5O factor Acute effect Chronic effect Types toxic substances hazardous carcinogens mutagens teratogens

Movement, Distribution and Fate of Toxins Solubility Bioaccumulation Biomagnification Persistence Chemical Interactions

Minimizing Toxic Effects Metabolic Degradation Excretion Repair Mechanisms

Measuring Toxicity Animal Testing Toxicity Ratings Acute vs. Chronic Doses and Effects Detection Limits

Assessment Risks Acceptable risks??

Risk Analysis Identifying Risks The Greatest Risks Problems - Risk Assessment Risk-Benefit Analysis Managing Risks

CHAPTER 10 FOOD, HUNGER AND NUTRITION

Human Nutrition Energy Needs Nutritional Needs undernourishment over-nourishment Nutritional Needs proteins carbohydrates lipids and oils minerals vitamins

World Food Resoureces Major Crops Meat and Milk Croplands wheat rice corn potatoes Meat and Milk Croplands

Increasing Food Production Green Revolution Technology Genetic Engineering Increased Farm Output New Food Sources Blue Revolution Aqua-culture

Agricultural Economics Food Supplies Food Subsidies Agricultural Aid International Food Trade Cash Crops

World Hunger Famines Food Shortages

CHAPTER 11 SOIL RESOURECES AND SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

What is soil? Soil, a renewable resource Soil composition humus Soil organisms Soil profiles top soil sub-soil parent material bedrock

Use and Abuse of Soil Land Resources Land Degradation

Erosion Types of erosion Erosion in the United States sheet erosion rill erosion gully erosion streambank erosion Erosion in the United States Erosion in other countries

Agricultural Resources Water Fertilizer Climate Energy Crop Diversity

Soil Conservation Managing Topography Providing Ground Cover contour plowing strip-farming tied ridges terracing Providing Ground Cover cover crops mulch Reduced Tillage Systems

CHAPTER 12 PEST CONTROL

What are Pest and Pesticides? Biological Pests Insects Large animals Botanical Pests Weeds Pesticides Insecticides Herbicides Fungicides

Pest Controls Early Controls Modern Controls Botanical Chemical Synthetic chemicals DDT

Pesticide Types Inorganic pesticides Natural organic pesticides botanicals Fumigants Chlorinated hydrocarbons Organophosphates Carbamates Microbial agents

Pesticide Benefits Disease control Crop protection Increased crop production

Pesticide Problems Effects on Nontarget Species Pesticide Resistance/Pest resurgence Creation of New Pests Persistence and Mobility in the Environment Human Health Problems

Alternative Pesticide Uses Crop rotation Biological controls predatory insects pathogens Herbivorous insects Genetic and bioengineering

Reducing Pesticide Exposure Regulation EPA USDA Personal Safety

CHAPTER 13 BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity and Species Concept What is Biodiversity? What are species? Number of species

Benefits of Biodiversity Food Drugs Medicine Ecological Benefits Aesthetic and Cultural Benefits

Threats to Biodiversity Extinction Natural Causes Mass Extinction

Human-Caused Reductions in Biodiversity Habitat Destruction Hunting and Fishing Commercial products and Live Specimens Predator and Pest Control Exotic Species Introductions Disease Pollution Genetic Assimilation

Biodiversity Protection Hunting and Fishing Laws Endangered Species Act Recovery Plans Private Land and Critical Habitat Minimum Viable Populations Habitat Protection International Wildlife Treaties Zoos Botanical Gardens Captive Breeding Programs

CHAPTER 14 LAND USE: FORESTS AND RANGELANDS

World Land Use Forest, 30% Range and pasture, 26% Cropland, 1% Other, 33 tundra desert wetlands urban areas

World Forests Forest Distribution Closed canopy Open canopy Woodland

Forest Products Industrial Timber Fuelwood

Tropical Forests Diminishing Forests Swidden Agriculture Logging and Land Invasions Forest Protection Reforestation Debt-for-Nature Swaps

Temperate Forests Ancient forest/old growth forests Wilderness Protection Wildlife Protection Harvesting old growth forests clear-cutting strip-cutting selective-cutting Fire Management

Rangelands Range Management Overgrazing and Land Degradation desertification Forage Conversion Harvesting Wild Animals

Rangelands in the U.S. Bureau of Land Management State of the Range feral animals Grazing Fees

Land Ownership Who owns what? Land Reform Indigenous Lands

CHAPTER 15 PRESERVING NATURE

Parks and Nature Preserves Origins and History Natural Landscaping

North American Parks Existing Systems U.S. National Park System Park Problems Over crowding Roads Commercialism Pollution Wildlife New Directions New Parks

World Parks and Preserves Biosphere Reserves Protecting Natural Heritage Size and Design of Nature Preserves recreation areas historic areas conservation areas pristine research areas Conservation and Economic Development Indigenous Communities

Wilderness Areas Wildlife Refuges Refuge Management International Wildlife Preserves poaching

Wetlands, Floodplains, & Coastal Regions Wetland Values Wetland Destruction Floods and Flood Control Floodplains Beaches, barrier Islands, and Estuaries

CHAPTER 16 EARTH AND ITS CRUSTAL RESOURCES

Earth, A Dynamic Sphere Earth’s Layers Tectonic Processes Crust Mantle Outer Core Inner Core Tectonic Processes Tectonic Plates Magma Shifting Continents

Rock Types & How They Formed Igneous Rock Weathering Sedimentation Sedimentary Rock Biogenic Sedimentation Metamorphic Rock

Mineralogy Metals Nonmetal Minerals Strategic Minerals

Environmental Effects of Resource Extraction Mining tunneling water leakage strip mining Processing water pollution chemical emissions

Conserving Mineral Resources Recycling Aluminum & Platinum Steel & Iron Substituting New Materials for Old Ones

Geologic Hazards Earthquakes Tsunami Volcanoes Floods

CHAPTER 17 AIR, CLIMATE, AND WEATHER

The Atmosphere, Composition & Structure Gas Mixture Layered Envelope Troposphere Stratosphere Mesosphere Thermosphere Ionosphere

Weather Engine Solar Radiation/ Heat Convection Currents Albedo (reflectivity) “Greenhouse effect” Convection Currents Water vapor

Weather Energy Balance in the Atmosphere Convection Cells Prevailing Winds Jet Streams Frontal Weather cold and warm fronts Cyclonic Storms hurricanes and tornadoes Seasonal Winds monsoon Weather Modification

Climate Climatic Catastrophes Ice Ages Driving Forces & Patterns in Climatic Changes Milankovitch Cycles El Niño

Human-caused Global Climate Change Greenhouse Gases Carbon Dioxide Aerosols Sources Burning Fossil Fuels Industrial Processes Deforestation Agriculture

Effects of Climate Change Temperature Changes Impact on Plants and Animals Rising Sea Levels impacting Coastlines Melting Ice Packs Possible Increase of Disease

Cutting Emissions United Nations “Earth Summit” Kyoto Protocol Developed Nations Developing Nations

CHAPTER 18 AIR POLLUTION

Natural Sources of Air Pollution Volcanoes Emissions from vegetation

Human-Caused Air Pollution Primary pollutants Secondary pollutants Fugitive emissions

Conventional or “Criteria” Pollutants Sulfur compounds Nitrogen Compounds Carbon Oxides Metals and Halogens Particulate Materials Volatile Organic Compounds Photochemical Oxidants

Unconventional Pollutants Emissions & emissions standards Unconventional or noncriteria pollutants Aesthetic degradation Indoor air Pollution smoke

Climate, Topography, & Atmospheric Processes Inversions Dust Domes and Heat Islands Long Range Transport Stratospheric Ozone chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Effects of Air Pollution Human Health bronchitis emphysema Plant Pathology Acid Deposition pH and atmospheric acidity aquatic effects forest damage buildings and monuments visibility reduction

Air Pollution Control Moving Pollution to Remote Areas Particulate Removal filters Sulfur Removal fuel switching and fuel cleaning limestone injection/fluidized bed combustion flue gas desulfurization sulfur recovery processes Nitrogen Oxide Control Hydrocarbon Controls

Clean Air Legislation Clean Air Act of 1963 Amendments of 1970 Acid rain Urban smog Toxic air pollutants Ozone protection Marketing pollution rights Toxic organic compounds EPA

CHAPTER 19 WATER USE AND MANAGEMENT

Water Resources Hydrologic Cycle Evaporation/Sublimation Saturation Point Relative humidity Condensation Dew Point Rainfall & Topography Rain Shadow Desert Belts Balancing the Water Budget

Major Water Compartments Oceans Glaciers, Ice, & Snow Ground Water infiltration water table aquifers Rivers and Streams Lakes and Ponds Wetlands The Atmosphere

Water Availability and Use Water Supplies Drought Cycles Types of Water Use Withdrawal Consumption Degradation Quantities of Water Use Use by Sector

Freshwater Shortages A Scarce Resource Depleting Groundwater subsidence sinkholes

Increasing Water Supplies Seeding Clouds &Towing Icebergs Desalination Dams, Reservoirs, Canals, & Aqueducts Environmental Costs Evaporation, Leakage, and Siltation Loss of Free-Flowing Rivers

Water Management & Conservation Watershed Management Domestic Conservation Industrial and Agricultural Conservation Price Mechanisms

CHAPTER 20 WATER POLLUTION

Water Pollution Point Sources Non-point Sources Atmospheric Deposition

Types and Effects of Water Pollution Infectious Agents Oxygen-Demanding Wastes Plant Nutrients & Cultural Eutrophication Toxic Inorganic Materials Heavy Metals Nonmetallic Salts Acids and Bases Organic Chemicals Sediments Thermal Pollution

Water Quality Today Surface Water in the U.S. & Canada Surface Water in other Countries Groundwater and Drinking Water Supplies Ocean Pollution

Water Pollution Control Source Reduction Non-point Sources and Land Management Agriculture Urban runoff Construction sites Land disposal

Human Waste Disposal Natural Processes Municipal Sewage Treatment Primary treatment Secondary treatment Tertiary treatment Low-Cost Waste Treatment effluent sewerage

Water Legislation Clean Water Act Clean Water Act Reauthorization Other Important Water Legislation Safe Drinking Water Act Superfund Great lakes Water Quality Agreement

CHAPTER 21 CONVENTIONAL ENERGY

Energy A Brief History Current Energy Sources Per Capita Consumption Fossil fuels Nuclear power Hydroelectric Solar Per Capita Consumption Energy Use

Coal Coal Resources and Reserves Mining Air Pollution

Oil Oil Resources and Reserves Oil Imports and Domestic Supplies Oil Shales and Tar Sands

Natural Gas Natural Gas Resources and Reserves Unconventional Gas Sources Methane hydrate

Nuclear Power Nuclear Reactors: How They Work? Types of Reactors Alternative Reactor Designs Breeder Reactors

Radioactive Waste Management Ocean Dumping Land Disposal high-level waste repository monitored, retrievable storage Decommissioning Old Nuclear Plants

Changing Fortunes of Nuclear Power Changing Public Opinion Nuclear Fusion Magnetic confinement Inertial confinement

CHAPTER 22 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY

Conservation Utilization Efficiencies Energy Conversion Efficiencies net energy yield Negawatt programs Co-generation

Tapping Solar Energy A Vast Resource Passive Solar Heat Active Solar Heat Eutectic Chemicals

High-Temperature Solar Energy Solar Cookers Promoting Renewable Energy Photovaltaic Solar Energy Photovoltaic Cells Storing Electrical Energy

Energy from Biomass Burning Biomass Fuelwood crisis in LDCs Dung and Methane as Fuels Alcohol from Biomass gasohol Crop Residues, Energy Crops and Peat

Energy from the Earth’s Forces Hydropower Dams and Hydro Generators Wind Energy Wind Farms Geothermal Energy Tidal and Wave Energy Tidal Stations Ocean Thermal Electric Conversion

CHAPTER 23 SOLID, TOXIC AND HAZARDOUS WASTE

Solid Waste Waste Stream Paper, 38% Yard waste, 17% Metals, 8% Plastics, 8% Glass, 7% Food, 7% Miscellaneous, 14%

Waste Disposal Methods Open Dumps Ocean Dumpings Landfills Export Waste Incineration and Resource Recovery Types of incinerators refuse-derived fuel mass burn Incinerator Cost and Safety

Reducing the Waste Stream Recycling Composting Energy from Waste Reuse Producing Less Waste Photodegradable plastics Biodegradable plastics

Hazardous and Toxic Wastes Hazardous Waste Disposal Superfund Hazardous Waste Management Produce Less Waste Convert to Less Hazardous Substances Physical treatments Chemical treatments Bioremediation Store Permanently Retrievable Storage Secure Landfills

CHAPTER 24 URBANIZATION AND SUSTAINABLE CITIES

Urbanization What is a city? World Urbanization Rural area Urban area Village City Megacity Core region World Urbanization

Causes of Urban Growth Immigration Push Factors Immigration Pull Factors Government Policies

Urban Problems The Developing World Traffic and Congestion Air Pollution Sewer Systems and Water Pollution Housing Slums Shantytowns Squatter Towns

The Developed World Urban Problems Urban Renewal Noise

Transportation and City Growth Transportation methods horse & buggy automobiles Roads/freeways

City Planning History Garden Cities and New Towns Cities of the Future technopolis Urban Redesign Design for Open space conservation

Urban Redesign Limit size Development areas Shopping malls into city centers Convenience for shopping and services Job location Exercise areas Diverse housing “Superblocks” Self-sustainable food and waste centers Public participation

CHAPTER 25 WHAT THEN SHALL WE DO?

Environmental Education Environmental Literacy Environmental Careers

Individual Accountability Shopping for Green Products precycling Non toxic products recyclable products natural products Environmentally friendly products Blue Angels and Green Seals Limits of Green Consumerism Paying Attention to What’s Important

Collective Actions Student Environmental Groups Mainline Environmental Organizations Broadening the Environmental Agenda Deep or Shallow Environmentalism Radical Environmental Groups Anti-environmental Backlash

Global Issues Public Opinions and Environmental Protection “Post materialist” values Sustainable Development International Nongovernmental Organizations

Green Government and Politics Green Politics “Green” Parties Green Plans National Legislation Courts Executive Branch Environmental Impact Statements International Environmental Treaties and Conventions