Motor Behavior Chapter 5

Goals of Motor Behavior Understand how motor skills are learned Understand how motor skills are controlled Understand how learning and control of motor skills changes across the lifespan Thomas and Thomas

Definitions Motor Learning –acquisition of motor skills as a result of practice and experience Motor Control –neurophysiological and behavioral processes affecting the control of skilled movements Motor Development –origins of and changes in movement behavior throughout the lifespan

Learning Relatively permanent change in behavior or performance as a result of instruction, experiences, study, and/or practice. Inferred from changes in performance. Motor behavior is concerned with the learning or acquisition of skills across the lifespan. Motor learning Motor control Motor development

Motor Learning and Motor Control

Historical Development Early Period (1880-1940) Research focused on how the mind worked, not the production of skills. Thorndike: Law of Effect When responses were rewarded, the behavior was strengthened. Middle Period (1940-1970) Craik focused research on how the brain processes and uses information to determine the motor response. Henry - “Memory drum theory” (role of cognitive activity in motor learning)

Historical Development Present Period (1970-present) Emergence of motor learning and motor control within physical education programs. Closed Loop theory (Adams) Schema theory (Schmidt) Dynamical Systems theory (Kelso)

Sample Research Questions How does the type and frequency of feedback impact skill acquisition? How does the structure of practice influence the retention of skills? What can be done to facilitate the transfer of previous learning to the learning of new skills? How does the aging process affect motor control? How do differences in individuals’ learning styles influence their ability to learn motor skills?

Information-Processing Model Input Decision-Making Output Feedback

Dynamical-System Theory Individual Heredity Past Experience Individual Characteristics Etc. Environment Teacher Skills & Behavior Sociocultural Characteristics Weather Task Demands Rules Difficulty Equipment Human Movement

Stages of Learning Cognitive Stage Associative Stage Autonomous Stage Understanding of the nature and goal of the activity Initial attempts at the skill - gross errors Associative Stage Practice on mastering the timing of the skill Fewer and more consistent errors Autonomous Stage Well coordinated and appears effortless Few errors “Automatic” performance allows attention to be directed to other aspects of skill performance

Open vs Closed Skills Closed Skills Open Skills Stable, predictable; self-paced Diving 2 ½ somersault Bowling Driving golf ball off a tee Open Skills Variable, unpredictable; externally-paced Hitting tennis forehand in a match Defending a player during a soccer game Offensive play during rugby game Closed Skills Stable, predictable; self-paced   Diving 2 ½ somersault Bowling Driving golf ball off a tee

Factors Influencing Learning Readiness Physiological and psychological factors influencing an individual’s ability and willingness to learn. Motivation A condition within an individual that initiates activity directed toward a goal. Concern with initiation, maintenance, and intensity of behavior. Reinforcement Using events, actions, and behaviors to increase the likelihood of a certain response recurring. May be positive or negative. Individual differences Backgrounds, abilities, intelligence, learning styles, and personalities of learners.

Motor Learning Concepts Structure practice sessions to promote optimal conditions for learning. Help learners understand the skill or task. Design practice according to the skill or task to be learned. Whether to teach by the whole or the part method depends on the skill and the learner. Whether speed or accuracy is emphasized in teaching a skill depends on the requirements of the skill.

Motor Learning Concepts Transfer of learning can facilitate the acquisition of motor skills. Feedback is essential for learning. Knowledge of results (KR) Knowledge of performance (KP) Learners may experience plateaus in learning. Develop self-analysis. Leadership influences the amount of learning.

Motor Development

Motor Development Study of the origins and changes in movement behavior throughout the lifespan. Biological and environmental influences on motor behavior from infancy to old age. Influence of psychological, sociological, cognitive, biological, and mechanical factors on motor behavior. Rate and sequence of development.

Historical Development Maturational Period (1928-1946) Research on the underlying biological processes guiding maturation. Focus on rate and sequences of motor development from infancy in terms of acquisition of rudimentary and mature movements. Normative/Descriptive Period (1946-1970s) Description of the motor performances of children. Research on how growth and maturation affect performance and the impact of perceptual-motor development. Process-Oriented Period (1980s-present) Research on how cognitive factors influence motor skill acquisition and motor development based on dynamical systems theory.

Sample Research Questions How does socioeconomic status affect the development of motor skills? How does early sensory stimulation affect the development of motor skills? What are the changes in motor skill development experienced across the lifespan? What are the developmental stages individuals go through as they acquire fundamental skills? What are the heredity and environmental factors most significantly associated with obesity? At what age can children safely engage in resistance training?

Phases of Development Early reflexive & rudimentary movement phases Hereditary is the primary factor for development. Sequential progression of development but individuals’ rates of development will differ. Fundamental movement phase Skill acquisition based on encouragement, instruction, and opportunities for practice. Specialized movement phase Skill refinement Hereditary and environmental factors influence the rate of the aging process.

Fundamental Motor Skills Fundamental motor skills are the foundation for development of more complex and specialized motor skills used in games, sports, dance, and fitness activities. Classification: Locomotor Nonlocomotor Manipulative

Fundamental Motor Skills Locomotor Examples: walking, running, jumping, hopping, leaping, sliding, skipping, galloping, dodging Nonlocomotor Examples: bending, stretching, pushing, pulling, twisting, turning, swinging Manipulative Examples: throwing, catching, striking, kicking, dribbling, volleying

Fundamental Motor Skills Rate of progress in developing these skills varies with each individual. Several fundamental motor skills can be combined to create a specialized movement necessary in an activity. Lack of development of fundamental skills may hinder future participation in activities.

Acquisition of Fundamental Skills Initial Stage (~ age 2) Poor spatial and temporal integration of skill movements. Improper sequencing of the parts of the skill Poor rhythm, difficulties in coordination Elementary Stage (~ age 3 & 4) Greater control and rhythmical coordination Temporal and spatial elements are better synchronized. Movements are still restricted, exaggerated, or inconsistent. Mature Stage (~age 5 or 6) Increased efficiency, enhanced coordination, and improved control of movements. Greater force production