1. How does the acquisition of skill affect performance?
Stages of skill acquisition
Characteristics of the learner
The learning environment
Assessment of skill and performance

2. Stages of Skill Acquisition The Cognitive Stage
This stage is identified as the basic or understanding stage of skill learning.
It focuses on what to do.
Learners at this stage will experience frequent large errors.
The learner is often unable to recognise errors.
The learner needs to see, feel and experience the movement.
Demonstration is the best means of communication.
Learners must identify sub-routines.
The learner will often exhibit a slow learning speed and inefficient movement.
Learning is supported with the use of teaching aids e.g. Demonstrations, pictures, videos, etc.

3. Stages of Skill Acquisition The Associative Stage
This stage is identified as the intermediate or practice stage of skill learning.
It focuses on how to do the skill.
Some errors are made but not so large.
The learner is able to recognise errors.
The learner needs to practice to kinaesthetically develop at this stage.
Emphasis is on temporal patterning. The player will know the sub-routines and is competent in assembling them into the required skill.
The learner will often exhibit moderate speed and reasonable efficient movement.
Further improvement requires practice of set patterns of movements in controlled situations.

4. Stages of Skill Acquisition The Autonomous Stage
This stage is identified as the advanced stage at which skills are performed reflexively.
Learners at this stage have the ability to focus on other tasks.
Very few errors are made at this stage.
The performer is able to detect and correct errors as they occur.
The performer is able to adapt movements to pressure situations.
Movements can be rehearsed under varying conditions.
Demonstrations are only essential to refine particular movements.
Temporal and sequential patterning of sub-routines is automatic at this stage.
The performer exhibits speed and efficiency that relate to the specific requirements of the situation.
Improvement at this stage requires the manipulation of the environment to ensure the skill is able to be reproduced under varying conditions.

5. Stages of Skill Acquisition Media Resources

6. Characteristics of the Learner Personality
Many athletes that are successful have not only physical talent but also positive personality traits. These traits include determination, desire to succeed, motivation, cooperation, optimism and enthusiasm. These personality traits coupled with physical talent enhance the learning of new skills.
Learners who’s personality reflects positive ways of behaving are more receptive to instruction and advice, more cooperative in performing set tasks and more helpful in creating a productive learning environment.

7. Characteristics of the Learner Heredity
Hereditary factors are characteristics inherited from parents. These factors cannot be changed and help to determine how quickly (or slowly) a new skill is learnt. Hereditary factors include:
- the percentage of fast and slow twitch muscle fibres (fast twitch fibres are naturally suited to sprint and explosive events, slow twitch are more suited to endurance.
- somatotype (mesomorphy, endomorphy and ectomorphy.
- gender
- Height
- Conceptual ability (the ability to visualise movement and make it materialise .
Heredity factors determine the ‘ceiling’ for performance potential.

8. Characteristics of the Learner Confidence
Confidence in learning a skill leads to successful skill development. Consistent failure may affect the confidence of a learner. Therefore, the coach needs to offer positive feedback so that confidence remains high.
Confidence unlocks energy and creativity. Confident people are able to help others as well as themselves.
Confident people approach new skill learning situations with feelings of being able to rise to the challenge and that the outcome will be favourable regardless of the outcome.

9. Characteristics of the Learner Prior Experience
If the learner has already learnt a similar skill this knowledge can be transferred to the new skill being learnt. This is known as transfer of learning and it increases the rate of skill development.
Lateral transfer – skill transfer from one similar task to another e.g. Backhand in squash to a backhand in tennis.
Vertical transfer – the act of mastering a lower order task as a prerequisite for something much more difficult e.g. Learning a butterfly kick using a kickboard before progressing to butterfly swimming.

10. Characteristics of the Learner Ability
Ability is the ease at which a learner develops new skills. It takes into account a number of factors such as the intelligence of the learner, their thought processes and problem solving skills, reaction time and perception.

11. The Learning Environment
The learning environment refers to everything outside the learner and embraces the skill itself, the situation in which it is practiced, information from coaches and even the influence of the surrounding weather conditions.
The Nature of Skill
All skills have observable characteristics, so can be grouped according to specific criteria. Skills are commonly classified as open or closed; gross motor or fine motor; discrete, serial or continuous; self-paced or externally paced. Most skills fit a number of classifications.

12. The Learning Environment The Nature of Skill
Open Skills:
Occur in an environment that is unpredictable and frequently changing. Athletes are required to modify their techniques to adapt to the instability of the surrounding environment. E.g. Surfing is an open skill due to the unpredictability of the environment.
Closed Skills:
Occur in an environment that is stable and predictable. This is much more conducive to learning for inexperienced individuals as there are no external distractions. E.g. Ten pin bowling is a closed skill.

13. The Learning Environment The Nature of Skill
Gross Motor Skills:
Require the use of large muscle groups for execution. E.g. Running, leaping, vaulting, tackling and surfing.
Fine Motor Skills:
Require the use of only small muscle groups to perform the movement. E.g. Typing, tying shoelaces and writing. Isolated movements in sport such as catching in cricket, playing darts and putting in golf.

14. The Learning Environment The Nature of Skill
Discrete Skills:
Have a distinctive beginning and end that can be identified. E.g. A forward roll in gymnastics.
Serial Skills:
Involve a sequence of smaller movements that are assembled to make a total skill. E.g. A place kick in football – placing the ball, moving back, moving forward, kicking the ball and following through.

15. The Learning Environment The Nature of Skill
Continuous Skills:
Have no distinct beginning or end. They appear repetitive and ongoing. E.g. Swimming, running, rowing, skiing and rock climbing. The length of these activities is unspecified, however, they do have a beginning and an end at some stage and due to this they can be categorised on a continuum ranging from discrete to continuous.

16. The Learning Environment The Nature of Skill
Self-paced Skills:
Are movements for which the performer determines the timing and speed of execution. E.g. A tennis serve and kicking a football (soccer) in practice.
Externally Paced Skills:
Are movements for which an external source controls the timing. E.g. Dancing, rhythmic gymnastics and returning a serve in tennis.

17. The Learning Environment The Nature of Skill
Media Resources:
Tennis as an open skill Part 1
Tennis as an open skill part 2
Tennis as an open skill part 3
Tennis as an open skill part 4