Chapter 3 Perception and Learning Semester 322, Spring 2012 Instructor: Dr Nailah Ayub

Social Perception Process of combining, integrating, and interpreting information to gain an understanding Process by which people judge and understand people and things with which they come into contact Combine various knowledge into a meaningful picture (the more the knowledge, the better equipped one is) Automatic and almost always happening

Social Identity Defining characteristic of an individual Personal identity Social identity

Social Identity Theory How we perceive in terms of personal or social identity Based on our uniqueness in a group Identity is pronounced within a particular situation People naturally want to be seen positively and so they identify with a group perceived to have positive characteristics we focus on differences from others- and see others as more (Exaggeratedly) negatively

Attribution Process Process of judging underlying causes of others’ behavior We attempt to get at least two types of information What is someone really like? (traits) What accounted for one’s action? What is someone really like: The judgments we make about someone is like based on what we have observed about him/her are known as correspondent inferences

Correspondent Inferences Figure 3.3 Attribution Process Correspondent Inferences Figure 3.3 Challenges for accuracy Behavior may be shaped by external forces People tend to conceal traits (disguise the negatives)

Making accurate correspondent inferences Focus on behaviors in situations in which they do not have to behave in a socially acceptable manner Focus on behavior for which there appears to be only a single logical explanation Causal attribution of RESPONSIBILITY Internal causes of behavior External causes of behavior

Kelley’s Theory of Causal Attribution Consensus: extent to which other people behave in the same manner as the person being judged Consistency: extent to which the person judged acts the same way at other times. Distinctiveness: extent to which a person behaves in the same manner in other contexts. Externally caused behavior- high consensus, high consistency, high distinctiveness Internally caused behavior- low consensus, high consistency, low distinctiveness

Causal Attribution (Kelley’s theory)

Perceptual Biases- Systematic errors in perceptions Fundamental Attribution Error: explain other’s behavior in terms of internal causes rather than external causes. The Halo Effect: maintain persistency in viewing things the same way once an impression is formed Team Halo Effect: tendency to credit teams for their success but not to hold them accountable for failures Similar-to-Me Effect: If you are like me, you must be good Selective Perception: tendency to focus on certain aspects of environment and ignore others

Perceptual Biases Halo Effect

Perceptual Biases First Impression Error- confirm one’s expectations (halo effect?)

Perceptual Biases Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Perceptions influence reality Pygmalion effect: holding high expectations tend to improve performance Golem effect: holding low expectations lowers performance

Perceptual Biases Stereotyping: belief that all members share similar traits and will behave in the same way Mental shortcuts; efficient Danger of stereotyping: Negative organizational impact- Inaccurate information Negative individual impact- Stereotype threat

Perceptions: Organizational Applications Rebound Effect: making information hyper-accessible Impression Management: Efforts to improve how one appears

Perceptions: Organizational Applications Performance Appraisal: formal judgments about job performance Inherently biased process- initial expectations; similar-to-me effect; internal attribution Corporate Image: Impression Management by organizations Positive image: favored by consumers; avoids boycotts Attracts best employee candidates Communicating corporate images news from other people Proactive steps: recruitment ads; annual reports

Part 2: Learning A relatively permanent change As a result of experience Through continued contact with the world around Learning cannot be observed directly Several different kinds of learning Operant conditioning Observational learning

Operant/Instrumental Conditioning Skinner: connections between actions and consequences Behavior produces consequences and we repeat behavior depending on those consequences, strengthen the desirable and weaken the undesirable (Law of Effect) Figure 3.12

Operant Conditioning Reinforcement Contingencies: Behavior is repeated for desirable outcomes that are associated with the behavior Table 3.4

Reinforcement Schedules Administering Rewards Continuous reinforcement Partial reinforcement (intermittent) Interval Fixed interval schedules Variable interval schedules Ratio Fixed ratio schedules Variable ratio schedules

Observational Learning Systematically observing others- Vicarious learning Person whose behavior is imitated is the model Process (Steps) of observational learning

Training- Developing Job Skills Training: Systematically acquire and improve the job-related skills. Varieties of Training Classroom Training: Instructor and opportunities to practice Apprenticeship Programs: Classroom and on-the-job training over a long period of time Cross-Cultural Training: Systematic way of preparing for work in another country Corporate Universities: Centers for company’s training needs on a full-time basis Executive Training Programs: Systematically develop top leaders by in-house training with outside experts or going out. E-Training: Disseminating information online Benefits: flexibility, speed and efficiency, reduced cost Problems: Costly to produce self-paced materials, loss of social aspect of learning- the one-on-one experience

Keys to Effective Training Participation: active involvement Repetition: practice and repeat Transfer of Training: generalize and apply Feedback: knowledge of results/outcomes

Organizational Behavior Management OB Management- OB Mod Problems of absenteeism, lateness, theft, substance abuse Improve output, reduced quality-related errors, reduced grievances and time lost due to accident, and happier workforce Discipline: Eliminating undesirable behavior Systematic administration of punishment Disciplinary Practices- Progressive Discipline (gradually increasing severity)

Disciplinary Measures Continuum

Effective Discipline Deliver Punishment Immediately After Undesirable Response. Give Moderate Levels of Punishment. Punish Undesirable Behavior, Not Person. Use Punishment Consistently Across Occasions. Punish Everyone Equally for Same Infraction. Clearly Communicate Reasons for Punishment. Do Not Follow Punishment with Noncontingent Rewards.