Motivation in Organizations Chapter 12 Motivation in Organizations Copyright © 2006 by South-Western, a division of Thomson Learning. All rights reserved.

Leading Function What does it involve? http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dGiQ0ASC_wg

Performance Determinants Performance = Σ ((Mot. Force) x (Ability) x (Situational Constraints))

Motivation Refers to the forces either internal or external to a person that arouse enthusiasm and persistence to pursue a certain course of action. p. 444

A Simple Model of Motivation Ex. 12.1 A Simple Model of Motivation Ex. 12.1 NEED-Creates desire to fulfill needs (food, friendship, recognition, achievement). BEHAVIOR-Results in actions to fulfill needs. REWARDS-Satisfy needs; intrinsic or extrinsic rewards. FEEDBACK-Reward informs person whether behavior was appropriate and should be used again.

Types of Rewards Intrinsic rewards--satisfactions a person receives in the process of performing a particular action. (self-administered) Extrinsic rewards--given by another person. (dependent on another to recognize and administer)

Content Theories Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow) Content Theories A group of theories that emphasize the needs that motivate people. Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow) ERG Theory (Alderfer) Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg) Acquired Needs Theory (McClelland)

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Ex. 12.2 Fulfillment off the Job Need Hierarchy Fulfillment on the Job Education, religion,hobbies personal growth Self-Actualization Needs Opportunities for training, advancement, growth, and creativity Approval of family, friends, community Esteem Needs Recognition, high status, increased responsibilities Family, friends, community groups Belongingness Needs Work groups, clients,coworkers, supervisors Freedom from war, pollution, violence Safety Needs Safe work,fringe benefits, job security Food, water, shelter Physiological Needs Heat, air, base salary

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory Self-Actualization Needs represent the need for self-fulfillment Esteem Needs desire for a positive self-image and to receive attention Belongingness Needs desire to be accepted by one’s peers Safety Needs safe and secure physical and emotional environment Physiological Needs most basic human physical needs

How does Maslow’s Hierarchy work? Unsatisfied needs are motivating Satisfaction progression Identify level of greatest unmet need and move up the hierarchy

ERG Theory Frustration-regression Satisfaction-progression Growth Needs human potential, personal growth, and increased competence Frustration-regression Satisfaction-progression Relatedness Needs the need for satisfactory relationships with others Existence Needs the needs for physical well-being

How does ERG work? Satisfaction progression Frustration regression Simpler categories work better

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Ex. 12.4 Area of Satisfaction Area of Satisfaction Highly Satisfied Motivators Achievement Recognition Responsibility Work Personal growth Motivators influence level of satisfaction. Neither Satisfied nor Dissatisfied Area of Dissatisfaction Hygiene factors influence level of dissatisfaction. Working conditions Pay and security Company policies Supervisors Interpersonal relationships Note: there is no continuity between categories. Hygienes and Motivators are separate and distinct. There is no progression from one to another. Hygiene Factors Highly Dissatisfied

How does Herzberg’s Theory Work? Two categories that are discontinuous (not a natural progression from one to another) Hygienes are in the context of work Motivators are in the content of work Laid the foundation for job enrichment

McClelland’s Acquired Need – how does it work? Needs are learned, not inherent Each is separate, no hierarchy or progression Can be taught to seek achievement (becomes intrinsic)

Acquired Needs Theory of David McClelland Acquired Needs Theory of David McClelland Need for Power desire to influence or control others Need for Affiliation desire to form close personal relationships, avoid conflict, and establish warm friendships Need for Achievement desire to accomplish something difficult, master complex tasks, and surpass others

Process Theories Expectancy Theory Equity Theory Reinforcement Theory Process Theories A group of theories that explain how employees select behaviors with which to meet their needs and determine whether their choices were successful. Expectancy Theory Equity Theory Reinforcement Theory

Process Theory 1 Expectancy Theory Process Theory 1 Expectancy Theory Motivation depends on individuals’ expectations about their ability to perform tasks and receive desired rewards. E P Concerned not with identifying types of needs but with the thinking process that individuals use to achieve rewards. P O Based on the effort, performance, and desirability of outcomes. O

Major Elements of Expectancy Theory Ex. 12.5 Major Elements of Expectancy Theory Ex. 12.5

Applications of Expectancy Theory Figure out what employees value (O) Determine behavior you desire and clearly communicate to ee. Make levels of performance attainable (E P) Link outcomes to desired performance (P O) Analyze situation for competing expectancies. Check the overall system for equity.

Process Theory 2 Equity Theory Equity Theory Focuses on individuals’ perceptions of how fairly they are treated compared with others. Motivated to seek social equity in the rewards they expect for performance. Self Other Inputs = ? Outputs = ? OutputsS OutputsO < Inputs S InputsO

Equity Theory of Motivation Inputs Education Experience Effort Outputs Recognition Pay Benefits Promotion Training and growth opportunities

Reducing Perceived Inequities Change inputs. Change outcomes. Distort perceptions. Leave the job.

Explain the cartoon She was punished for good behavior

Process Theory 3 Reinforcement Theory The consequences following behavior are important. Some consequences increase the likelihood of future behavior. Some consequences decrease the likelihood of future behavior.

What types of consequences? Positive $ Praise Attention Satisfaction Promotion

Negative Consequences Discipline (often progressive) letter, loss of wages, termination Disapproving look “Chewing out” Guilt (indirect communication)

Reinforcement Category? What is this? Reinforcement Category? Behavior Consequences Positive Reinforcement Desired Consequence? Continued effort

Reinforcement Category? What is this? Reinforcement Category? Behavior Consequences reprimand punishment Desired Consequence? Not fight again

What is Extinction? Subsequent behavior? Behavior Consequences undesirable none Reinforcement withdrawn, behavior decreases

What is Avoidance Learning? Subsequent behavior Behavior Consequences Screaming boss Employee looks contrite or cries; boss stops screaming (negative condition ends) Employee behavior is reinforced & occurs more quickly when boss screams in future

Figure 12.6 Changing Behavior With Reinforcement

Ex. 12.7 Schedules of Reinforcement

Rewarding Ideas for Motivating Pay for Performance Gain Sharing Employee stock Ownership Lump-sum Bonuses Flexible Work Schedule Telecommuting Team-based Compensation Lifestyle Awards

Job Design for Motivation Job design - application of motivational theories to the structure of work Job simplification - job design whose purpose is to improve task efficiency Job Rotation - rotate employees to provide stimulation Job Enlargement - combination of tasks into broader job to increase challenge Job Enrichment - incorporating achievement and recognition into jobs

Job Characteristics Model Exhibit 12.9

Learning Objectives Define motivation and explain the difference between current approaches and traditional approaches to motivation. Identify and describe content theories of motivation based on employee needs. Identify and explain process theories of motivation. Describe reinforcement theory and how it can be used to motivate employees. Discuss major approaches to job design and how job design influences motivation. Explain how empowerment heightens employee motivation. Describe ways that managers can create a sense of meaning and importance for employees at work.

Ex. 12.9 The Job Characteristics Model Ex. 12.9 The Job Characteristics Model SOURCE: Adapted from J.Richard Hackman and G.R. Oldham, “Motivation through the Design of Work: Test of a Theory,” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 16 (1976), 256.

Figure 12.11 A Continuum of Empowerment