LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT 11 A Topical Approach to LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT The Self, Identity, and Personality John W. Santrock

Self-Understanding Self — All characteristics of a person The Self Self-Understanding Self — All characteristics of a person Self-understanding, self-esteem, self-concept Identity — who a person is, representing a synthesis of self-understanding Personality — enduring personal characteristics of individuals

Important Definitions Personality (unique and relatively stable pattern of thoughts, feelings, and actions)

Trait Theories Traits (relatively stable personal characteristics used to describe someone) Key Figures: Early Trait Theorists: Allport, Cattell, Eysenck Modern trait theorists: McCrae and Costa’s Five-Factor Model (FFM)

The Self Self-Understanding Cognitive representation of the self, substance of self conceptions Visual self-recognition tests infants Young children perceive self as external characteristics Older children recognize difference between inner and outer states

Self-Recognition in Infancy Fig. 11.1

Early Childhood Self-understanding Understanding others The Self Early Childhood Self-understanding Confusion of self, mind, and body Self-descriptions are physical, concrete, active, and unrealistic positive overestimations Understanding others Individual differences in social understanding linked to caregivers

Middle and Late Childhood The Self Middle and Late Childhood Self-understanding: 5 key changes Internal characteristics emphasized More referencing in social descriptions More use of social comparisons Distinguish between real self and ideal self Realistic in self-evaluations Understanding others Increased perspective taking

The Role of Perspective-Taking The Self The Role of Perspective-Taking Perspective-taking — ability to assume another’s perspective and understand his or her thoughts and feelings Important in children developing prosocial and antisocial attitudes and behaviors Affects peer status and quality of friendships

Self-Understanding in Adolescence The Self Self-Understanding in Adolescence Abstract and idealistic Self-conscious; preoccupied with self Contradictions within the self – multiple roles in different contexts realized Fluctuating self over time and situations Compare real and ideal selves Possible selves: what persons may be, would like to be, and are afraid of becoming Self-integration in sense of identity

Changes in Self-Understanding in Adulthood The Self Changes in Self-Understanding in Adulthood Self-Awareness Awareness of strengths and weaknesses Improves in young and middle adulthood Possible Selves Get fewer and more concrete with age Some revise throughout adulthood Life Review Some in middle age, common in older adults Evaluations of successes and failures

Self-Esteem and Self-Concept The Self Self-Esteem and Self-Concept Self-esteem Global evaluative dimension of the self Same as self-worth or image Self-concept Domain-specific evaluations of the self Distinct - not really interchangeable

Issues with Self-Esteem The Self Issues with Self-Esteem Modest correlations link self-esteem and school performance; links vary between adult job performance and self-esteem Self-esteem related to perceived physical appearance across life-span Depression lowers high self-esteem

Issues with Self-Esteem The Self Issues with Self-Esteem Persons with high self-esteem Increased happiness Have greater initiative Prone to both prosocial and antisocial actions Undeserved high self-esteem Narcissism: self-centered, self-concerned Conceited Lack of awareness linked to adjustment problems

Self-Esteem in Childhood and Adolescence The Self Self-Esteem in Childhood and Adolescence Accuracy of self-evaluations increases across the elementary school years Majority of adolescents have positive self-image cross-culturally Girls’ self-esteem is lower than boys’ by middle school years

Self-Esteem in Adulthood The Self Self-Esteem in Adulthood Some researchers find drops in self-esteem in late adulthood; others don’t Older adults with positive self-esteem May not see losses as negatively Decrease in knowledge-related goals Increase in emotion-related goals Compare themselves to other older adults

Increasing Self-Esteem The Self Increasing Self-Esteem Identify causes of low self-esteem Provide/seek emotional support and social approval Develop self-confidence and initiative Achieve Develop coping skills

The Self Self-Regulation Ability to control one’s behavior without having to rely on others for help Includes self-generation and cognitive monitoring of thoughts Self-regulation linked to higher achievement and satisfaction over the lifespan

Self-Regulation in Infancy and Early Childhood The Self Self-Regulation in Infancy and Early Childhood 12-18 months Depend on caregivers for reminder signals about acceptable behaviors Begin to comply with the caregiver’s expectations in the absence of monitoring 2-3 years Learn to resist temptation and give themselves instructions that keep them focused Preschool

Self-Regulation in Middle/Late Childhood and Adolescence The Self Self-Regulation in Middle/Late Childhood and Adolescence Self-regulation increases from about 5 or 6 years up to 7 or 8 years of age Across elementary school years, children increase beliefs that behavior is result of own effort and not luck From 8 to 14 years of age, children increase perception of self-responsibility for failure

Personal Control Primary control striving Secondary control striving The Self Personal Control Primary control striving One’s efforts to change external world to fit needs and desires Attain personal goals, overcome obstacles Secondary control striving Targets one’s inner worlds: motivation, emotion, and mental representation

The Self Changes In Primary and Secondary Control Strategies Across the Life Span Fig. 11.6

What is Identity? Self-portrait of many identities: Vocational/career Political Religious Relationship Achievement/intellectual Sexual Cultural/ethnic Interests Personality Physical

Erikson’s Ideas on Identity Identity versus identity confusion Adolescents examine who they are, what they are about, and where they are going in life Psychosocial moratorium Gap between childhood security and adult autonomy, part of adolescent identity exploration

Identity Identity Statuses According to Marcia: Individuals go through periods of Crisis: exploring alternatives during identity development Commitment: individuals show personal investment in what they are going to do

Identity Statuses Marcia Identify Diffusion: not experienced crisis or made commitments Identity Foreclosure: made commitment but not experienced crisis (parents handed down commitments without adolescent making any exploration)

Identity Statuses Marcia 3. Identity Moratorium: in midst of crisis but commitment absent or only vaguely defined 4. Identity Achievement: experienced crisis and made a comitment

Marcia’s Identity Statuses Fig. 11.9

Developmental Changes in Identity Status Young adolescents primarily in statuses of diffusion, foreclosure, or moratorium Important for achieving positive identity Confidence in parental support Established sense of industry Able to adopt self-reflective stance of future

Early Adolescence to Adulthood Identity Early Adolescence to Adulthood Most important changes occur ages 18 to 25 “MAMA” cycle: pattern for positive identity moratorium • achievement • moratorium • achievement Family influences on identity development Parenting style effects identity development

Early Adolescence to Adulthood Identity Early Adolescence to Adulthood Parenting styles Democratic foster identity achievement Autocratic foster identity foreclosure Permissive foster identity diffusion Search for balance is very important in adolescence

Family Influences Ability to have and give point of view Identity Family Influences Self-assertion Separateness Mutuality Permeability Ability to have and give point of view Openness to other’s views Individuality Use of communication patterns to express own individuality Connectedness Sensitivity to and respect for other views

Ethnic Identity Erikson very sensitive to role of culture Ethnic minority groups struggle to blend into dominant culture and keep cultural identities Ethnic identity linked to HS achievement and lower aggression Higher self-esteem Predicting academic success Identity formation affected by college attendance

Trait Theories and the Big Five Factors of Personality Personality is broad dispositions or traits that tend to produce characteristic responses Big Five Factors of Personality theory Led to advancements in assessing personality Most believe personality is result of trait-situation interaction

Big Five Factors of Personality Fig. 11.8

Trait Theorists: The Five-Factor Model Understanding personality and relationships: Place a dot on each line to indicate your own traits of openness, conscientiousness, etc. Then do the same for an ideal romantic partner.

Generativity versus Stagnation Personality Generativity versus Stagnation Seventh stage in Erikson’s life-span theory Generativity Encompasses adults’ desire to leave legacy to next generation Middle-aged adults develop in number of ways Stagnation Also self-absorption, develops when one senses s/he has done nothing for next generation

Personality Stability and Change Many longitudinal studies have found evidence for both change and stability in personality in adulthood Smith College Study Costa and McCrae’s Baltimore Study Berkley Longitudinal Studies Helson’s Mills College Study Vaillant’s studies

11 The End