PSY 2012 L.A. Siegel, MA, CSE, AASECT Learning PSY 2012 L.A. Siegel, MA, CSE, AASECT

Learning The process by which practice or experience results in a relatively permanent change in behavior Conditioning A simple form of learning in which a specific pattern of behaviors is learned in the presence of well-defined stimuli

Classical Conditioning

Classical Conditioning Learning in which a response naturally caused by one stimulus comes to be elicited by a different, formerly neutral stimulus Ivan Pavlov

Elements of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (US) Unconditioned response (UR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned response (CR)

Classical Conditioning Procedure Food (US) Salivation (UR)

Classical Conditioning Procedure Bell (CS) No Response Food (US) Salivation (UR)

Classical Conditioning Procedure During Conditioning Food (US) Bell (CS) Salivation (UR)

Classical Conditioning Procedure After Conditioning Bell (CS) Salivation (CR)

Classical Conditioning In Humans Many phobias are the result of classical conditioning – John Watson The “Little Albert” experiment demonstrated a classically conditioned phobia Taste aversion Learned association between the taste of a certain food and nausea or revulsion This learning can occur quickly, often with only one pairing – WHY?

Classical Conditioning in Humans Taste aversion Learned association between the taste of a certain food and a feeling of nausea or revulsion This learning can occur quickly, often with only one pairing Speed of learning is likely related to survival instincts

Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning Learning in which an organism’s behavior is followed by a reward or punishment Organism learns to perform behavior in order to gain a reward or avoid a punishment

Elements of Operant Conditioning Reinforcer A stimulus or event that follows a behavior and makes that behavior more likely to occur again Punisher A stimulus or event that follows a behavior and makes that behavior less likely to occur again

Types of Reinforcement Positive reinforcer (+) Adds something rewarding following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again Giving a dog a treat for fetching a ball is an example Negative reinforcer (-) Removes something unpleasant from the environment following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again Taking an aspirin to relieve a headache is an example

Punishment Goal of punishment is to decrease the occurrence of a behavior Effective punishment Should occur as soon as possible after the behavior Should be sufficient, i.e., strong enough Should be certain, occurring every time the behavior does Should be consistent

Punishment Not as effective as reinforcement Does not teach proper behavior, only suppresses undesirable behavior Causes upset that can impede learning May give impression that inflicting pain is acceptable

Operant Conditioning is Selective Operant conditioning techniques work best with behaviors that would typically occur in a specific situation Superstitious behavior Tendency to repeat behaviors that are followed closely by a reinforcer, even if they are not related For example, a particular pair of socks might become “lucky” if something good happened when you wore them

Learned Helplessness Failure to try to avoid an unpleasant stimulus because in the past it was unavoidable Possible model for depression in humans

Schedules of Reinforcement Interval schedules Reinforcement depends on the passing of time Fixed-interval schedule Reinforcement follows the first behavior after a fixed amount of time has passed An example would be receiving a paycheck every two weeks Variable-interval schedule Reinforcement follows the first behavior after a variable amount of time has passed An example would be pop quizzes

Schedules of Reinforcement Ratio schedules Reinforcement depends on the number of responses made Fixed-ratio schedule Reinforcement follows a fixed number of behaviors For example, being paid on a piecework basis Variable-ratio schedule Reinforcement follows a variable number of behaviors An example would be playing slot machines

Cognitive Learning Learning that depends on mental activity that is not directly observable Involves such processes as attention, expectation, thinking, and memory

Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps Latent learning is learning that takes place before the subject realizes it and is not immediately reflected in behavior A cognitive map is latent learning stored as a mental image

Insight and Learning Sets Insight is when learning seems to occur in a sudden “flash” as elements of a situation come together Learning sets refer to increasing effectiveness at problem solving through experience, i.e., organisms “learn how to learn”

Learning by Observing Social learning theory focuses on what we learn from observing other people Observational or vicarious learning occurs when we see the consequences of other people’s behavior Vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment affects the willingness of people to perform behaviors they learned by watching others

Memory

Memory The ability to remember things we have experienced, imagined, or learned Memory is often seen as steps in an information-processing model Encoding Storage Retrieval

The Sensory Registers Sensory registers are the first stop for all sensory information The sensory registers are very large, but information stays for only a very short time

Visual and Auditory Registers Visual register holds images, or icons, that represent all aspects of a visual image Icons normally last about ¼ second in the visual register Auditory register holds echoes of sound Echoes can last up to several seconds in the auditory register

Attention Selects certain information for further processing We normally pay attention to only a small portion of incoming information

Sequence of Information Processing

Short-Term Memory Short-term memory holds information we are aware of or thinking about at any given moment Sometimes referred to as working memory

Capacity of Short-Term Memory Early research indicated that STM can hold 5-10 bits of information Current research has demonstrated that STM can hold whatever is rehearsed in 1.5 to 2 seconds Larger amounts of information can be held by using the process of chunking

Encoding in Short-Term Memory Much information is stored in STM phonologically (according to how it sounds) Some information is stored visually Research has shown that memory for visually encoded information is better than phonologically encoded information

Maintaining Short-Term Memory Information can be held in STM by using rote rehearsal, also called maintenance rehearsal Rote rehearsal involves repeating information over and over This technique is not very effective in creating long term memories

Long-Term Memory Everything that is learned is stored in long-term memory Capacity of long-term memory Vast amounts of information may be stored for many years No known limits to capacity

Encoding in Long-Term Memory Most information is encoded in terms of meaning Some information is stored verbatim Some information is coded in terms of nonverbal images

Serial Position Effect People tend to recall the first items (primacy effect) and last items (recency effect) in a list Demonstrates how short- and long-term memory work together Primacy effect reflects long-term memory Recency effect reflects short-term memory

Serial Position Effect

Maintaining Long-Term Memory Rote rehearsal Repetition can result in long-term memory Only effective if there is intent to learn material Example: What does a penny look like? The accurate picture is the one third from the left. Most people will get this wrong because although they have seen a lot of pennies, they never pay attention so they never learn.

Maintaining Long-Term Memory Elaborative rehearsal Process of relating new information to information already stored in memory Meaning is assigned to new information and then linked to as much existing knowledge as possible

Schemata A schema is a set of beliefs or expectations about something based on past experience Incoming information is fit with existing schemata Schemata can also influence the amount of attention paid to a given event

Types of Long-Term Memory Episodic memories Memories for personal events in a specific time and place Semantic memories Memory for general facts and concepts not linked to a specific time Procedural memories Motor skills and habits Emotional memories Learned emotional responses to various stimuli

Explicit and Implicit Memory Explicit memory Memory for information we can readily express and are aware of having This information can be intentionally recalled Implicit memory Memory for information that we cannot readily express and may not be aware of having Cannot be intentionally retrieved

The Biology of Memory How are memories formed? Changes in synaptic connections among neural cells Called long-term potentiation Where are memories stored? There is no one place Different parts of the brain are specialized for different types of information

Where Are Memories Stored?

Forgetting

The Biology of Forgetting Decay theory Memories deteriorate because of the passage of time Amnesia Memory loss caused by accidents, surgery, poor diet, or disease Retrograde amnesia Loss of memory from prior to an accident or injury

Experience and Forgetting Retroactive interference Occurs when new information interferes with information already in memory Proactive interference Occurs when information already in memory interferes with new information

Interference

Experience and Forgetting Situational factors Recall of information is better if environment is the same as when information was learned State-dependent memory Recall of information is better if person is in the same physiological state as when information was learned Reconstruction Memories can be altered with each retrieval

How to Reduce Forgetting Develop motivation Practice memory skills Be confident in your ability to remember Minimize distractions Stay focused Make meaningful connections to what is in long-term memory Use mental imagery Use retrieval cues Rely on more than memory alone Be aware of possible distortion due to schemata

Special Topics in Memory Autobiographical memory Recollection of events in our life More recent events are easier to recall Childhood Amnesia Generally poor memory for events prior to age two May occur because brain in not fully developed at birth Another theory is that it may be due to lack of clear sense of self in young children

Special Topics in Memory Extraordinary memory Includes eidetic imagery (photographic memory) Usually due to well developed memory techniques Flashbulb memories Vivid memories of dramatic event May occur because of strong emotional content

Special Topics in Memory Eyewitness testimony Shown to be unreliable People’s recall for events may be influenced by what they heard or imagined Recovered memories Involved the recall of long-forgotten dramatic event May be the result of suggestion Some evidence that memories can be repressed and recalled later

Cultural Influences on Memory Cultural values and practices influence what kinds of things we remember and how easily we recall them