Liberalism: Reforms and Revolutions

National Liberation in Greece: 1821 National, liberal revolution succeeded first in Greece United by Pan-Hellenism V. Islamic Ottoman Turks Alexander Ypsilanti Supported by others Americans and Europeans – loved Greek culture Russians – backed Orthodox religion Romantics – moved by the romantic impulse National Liberation in Greece: 1821

National Liberation in Greece 1827: the Great Powers (GB, France, Russia) tried to force armistice Declaration of Independence Backed by Great Powers 1830: Treaty of London—Install German prince as king National Liberation in Greece

Issues: Liberal Reform in Great Britain Repressed any kind of protest 1815: Tories passed Corn Laws protect landholding aristocracy Tax imports of foreign grain. Protests=suspension of habeas corpus and right of assembly. Issues: Liberal Reform in Great Britain Battle of Peterloo protest savagely broken up by cavalry “Six Acts” – stopped radical newspapers and large meetings

Liberal Reform in Great Britain The Reform Bill of 1832 enfranchised more voters House of Commons emerges important leg. body 12% of adult males can now vote (up 50%) 1848: Chartist Movement (People’s Charter) wants universal male suffrage Anti-Corn Law League – repealed Corn Laws in 1846 and escaped famine Tories competed with middle class for working- class support by passing factory reform bills. 10 Hours Act of 1847 – limited workday for women and young people in factories Liberal Reform in Great Britain

Revolution of 1830 in France Constitutional Monarchy Louis XVIII’s Constitutional Charter of 1814 Keep revolutionary changes allow intellectual and artistic freedom Parliament = upper and lower houses But…only wealthy males can vote Revolution of 1830 in France

Revolution of 1830 in France Charles X Wants to reject Charter & Re- establish the old order in France Military Campaigns in Algeria: rallies support Stripped wealthy middle class of voting rights, censored the press Revolution of 1830 in France

Revolution of 1830 in France Printers, artisans, and small traders forced the collapse of the government in 3 days and Charles fled. Louis Philippe (Citizen King) claimed the throne Revolution of 1830 in France

Other Revolutions 1825 – Decembrist Uprising – Russia Riot in St. Petersburg against new tsar Nicholas I – many killed 1830: Belgium breaks from the Netherlands 1830: Poland tries to rebel from Russia…Fail Other Revolutions

The Revolutions of 1848 The turning point at which history failed to turn… - George Macaulay Trevelyan, 1937

Causes of upheaval 50+ Riots or Revolutions throughout Europe Watershed: Cause of everything else in the 19th Century Romanticism, nationalism, and liberalism Economic dislocation and instability. Only Britain and Russia avoided Neither liberals or conservatives could gain permanent upper hand. Causes of upheaval

France 1848: The February Revolution Working class and liberals unhappy with King Louis Philippe & Guizot opposed electoral reform Dismisses Guizot, but riots break out. King forced to abdicate on Feb. 24. France 1848: The February Revolution Francois Guizot

The Provisional Government Second French Republic declared by Chamber of deputies. Moderate republicans led by liberal Alphonse Lamartine (allied w/ bourgeoisie) Socialists led by Louis Blanc National workshops to provide work Reforms: abolished slavery in the empire, 10 hr workday in Paris, abolished death penalty. April elections: conflict between moderate republicans (who won) and socialists The Provisional Government

Workers attempted to create a revolutionary republic Cause: gov’t closed national workshops Want poverty reform & redistribution of income. Barricades put up in streets The June Days Revolt

France 1848 The Second Republic General Louis Cavaignac: assumed dictatorial powers & crushed revolt (10,000 dead) Victory for conservatives Nov 1848 – constitution provided for elected president and one- house parliament Election of 1848: Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (1803-1873) defeated Cavaignac 1852: Louis Napoleon consolidates power and becomes Emperor Napoleon III France 1848 The Second Republic Louis Napoleon Bonaparte

Ethnic minorities sought nationalistic goals v. Hapsburgs Hungarians, Slavs, Czechs, Italians, Serbs, Croats, et al. More non-Germans than Germans lived in the empire Austrian gov’t was reactionary; liberal institutions were non-existent. Social reliance on serfdom Inspired by French Revolutions Revolution in Austria, 1848

Vienna, 1848 March 13 – rioting breaks out in Vienna Austrian empire collapsed; Metternich fled Constituent assembly meets. Serfdom abolished Revolutionary gov’t failed to govern effectively Ferdinand I abdicates Habsburgs restored royal absolutism under Franz Joseph (r. 1848-1916). Vienna, 1848 Franz Joseph

Hungary, 1848 Louis Kossuth (1802-1894) Austrians invade Hungary Magyar nationalist, demanded independence. March laws provided for Hungarian independence. Austrians invade Hungary Hungarians push to Vienna Slavic minorities resisted Hungarian army withdrew Austrian and Russian collation defeated Hungarian army. Given autonomy in 1866 Hungary, 1848 Louis Kossuth

Bohemia, 1848 Prague Conference Austroslavism: Slavic people want constitution and autonomy within Habsburg empire. Failed to unite Slavic peoples in the empire. Austrian military attacked Prague and occupied Bohemia Crushed rebellion. Bohemia, 1848

Nationalists and liberals seek to end foreign domination of Italy (Austria) Milan, Lombardy and Venetia Bourbon rulers in Kingdom of Two Sicilies and House of Savoy in Sardinia-Piedmont grant liberal constitutions. Sardinia-Piedmont declared war on Austria. Beginning in May, revolutions suppressed. Upheaval in Italy, 1848

Giuseppe Mazzini established Roman Republic in 1849 protected by Giuseppe Garibaldi Pope Pius IX forced to flee Austrian General Radetsky crushes Sardinia-Piedmont; regains Lombardy and Venetia. French troops take back Papal States. Victor Emmanuel II takes throne in Sardinia-Piedmont. Italy, 1848 Giuseppe Mazzini

Italy, 1848 Causes for failure: Rural people did not support revolutions Revolutionaries not united Lack of leadership and administrative experience Italy, 1848 Giuseppe Garibaldi

The German States, 1848 Revolutions inspired by France Liberals demanded constitutional government union of German states. Frederick William IV rejected constitution Conservative: guaranteed royal control of gov’t (lasted until 1918). The German States, 1848 Frederick William IV

Liberal, romantic, & nationalist leaders called for elections to a constituent assembly Presented Constitution to unify German State Sought war with Denmark to annex Schleswig & Holstein Prussian King Frederick William IV as emperor Frankfurt Parliament

Collapse of the Revolution Debate over whether or not to include Austria and who would rule (Hollenzollerns or Habsburgs?) Failure of Prussia and Austria to support unification movement Frederick William’s attempt to unify Germany ended in failure, Dissolved Parliament and created a constitution for Prussia. Created two-house parliament, but gave the king ultimate authority. Collapse of the Revolution

Collapse of the Revolution Prussia attempted to create a north German confederation that it would dominate. Austria opposed, demanding Prussian allegiance to the Bund (that Austria dominated) Nov. 1850 - “Humiliation of Olmutz”: Prussia dropped plan to unify Germany, leaving Austria as dominant German state in the Bund. Prussia would seek revenge in 1866 (Austro- Prussian War) Collapse of the Revolution

The revolutions failed to pull popular support from working classes. Middle classes led the revolution, but as it turned more radical, they held back. “Old Guard” too powerful and dominated successful revolts Nationalism divided more that united. Some gains lasted (abolition of serfdom, etc.) Ends the Age of Metternich and Begins the Age of Bismarck Long term: Liberalism gains reforms Germany and Italy would be unify Austrian Empire collapses after World War I. 1848 – The Consequences

Analyze whether or not the revolutions of 1848 can be considered a turning point in European political and social history. Essay Question