1. Revolutions and Reform

2. The political settlement, designed to stop revolution, inadvertently fed the grievances of nationalism and Liberalism
The Age of Revolutions gained fuel from industrial problems and the legacy of unfilled promises from the French Revolution
Revolutionary turmoil culminated with the Revolutions of 1848

3. The Revolutions of
In 1830, the fever of revolution flared again, as usual beginning in France
Charles X reestablished the power of the Catholic clergy and favored the interests of former aristocrats
When elections repudiated the king’s policies, he issues the Four Ordinances in July 1830

4. Militant republican and middle-class moderates joined in overthrowing the king
The throne went to the Duke of Orleans who had republican credentials
The new king Louis Philippe promised to abide by the Constitution of 1814

5. Events in France inspired revolts in Belgium and Poland in 1830-1831
The Belgians declared their independence from the Dutch
They were allowed to establish a new Belgian kingdom

6. This was not the case in Poland
Revolted against the Russian authority in 1831
The Polish revolt was brutally crushed by Nicholas I
“Congress Poland” was incorporated in Russia

7. The Greeks revolted against their Turkish rulers in 1821
There was an outpouring of support by European intellectuals
By the 1820’s, the great powers had come over to the cause of the Greek nationalism
The Turks were defeated and new a new independent Greek state was created

8. Reforms in Great Britain
Great Britain avoided revolutionary upheaval because of its ability to adapt
Parliament passed the Reform Act of 1832, which doubled the number of males who could vote, but retained a property requirement

9. Further reforms followed with the abolition of slavery in the British Empire and the Poor Law of 1834
Parliament in 1846 finally repealed the Corn Laws, initiating a century of British support for free trade
Parliament passed the Mines Act, banning women and children from mines, and the Ten Hours Act, limiting hours in textile mills

10. The Revolutions of 1848
Three major causes account for the stunning outburst of revolutionary activity:
1 -Liberals felt profound frustration at the lack of political change toward constitutional and representative government

11. 2 – nationalists chafed under the 1815 Vienna settlement and its blunt rejection of self-determination for ethnic minorities
3 – the lives of the working class suffered from poor agricultural productivity and jobs were lost to new industrial machines

12. France
Liberals engaged in a “banquet campaign” to agitate for suffrage expansion
When the government cancels the planned banquet, Paris revolted
Louis Philippe abdicated and a provisional government was formed

13. National workshops are formed
The June Days see class violence between radical republicans and the army
Louis Napoleon is elected president in December by a wide majority and moves to consolidate power
He exploits fears of further social conflict to establish authoritarian control of the nation

14. Prussia
Prussian liberals revolt against the Prussian monarch, who had resisted sharing power
Force the election of a Prussian Assembly
By the end of the spring, the Prussian army had reestablished control of the nation

15. Frankfurt
Liberals overthrew the traditional political structures of the German states
After elections, delegates met in Frankfurt to discuss the unification of Germany

16. Deliberations divided over whether the Austrian empire, with its large non-German population, should be included in a unified Germany
By December, the Liberals had issued a Declaration of Rights for the German people

17. In April 1849, the Frankfurt Assembly completed its constitution and offered the crown to Prussian King Frederick William
Frederick William rejected the crown and the work of the German unification would be accomplished by a conservative

18. Austria
Workers and students rebel in March in Vienna, causing Metternich to flee to Britain
Franz Joseph I became emperor in December upon his father’s abdication
Serfdom is abolished throughout the empire

19. Emperor Franz Joseph agreed to a constitution in 1849
The new emperor and army reestablish control and crush further opposition
He rejects the constitution in 1851 and worked toward centralizing his power

20. Prague
Slavic nationalists meet to discuss the unification of the Slavs
Though unsuccessful, Slavic nationalism remained a problem for the Austrian empire

21. Budapest
The Hungarian Diet in March proclaims liberty for Magyars (an ethnic minority in Austria)
Hungarian nationalists proclaim a new constitution that promotes the Magyar language but suppresses the right of Slavic minorities in Hungary

22. After the constitution is rejected by the Austrian emperor, Hungary declares complete independence
Emperor Franz Joseph in 1848 asks Russian leader Nicholas I to crush the nationalist movement in Budapest

23. Italy Several Italian states rise in revolt against Austrian rule
Charles Albert of Piedmont-Sardinia grants a constitution to his people and declares war on Austria to gain territory in Italy
Numerous other states rise in revolt against Austria rule

24. Italians experience few specific victories in 1848, other than the abolition of serfdom in some states and a constitution for Piedmont
The revolutions set the stage for later Italian unification under Piedmont-Sardinian leadership

25. Why did the revolutions fail?
Though revolutionaries boasted lofty rhetoric and inspiring visions, they lacked the institutional power of conservative forces
Conservatives successfully exploited middle class fears of radical revolutions after the June Days in Paris

26. Rulers pitted ethnic minorities against each other to divide and conquer and reestablish authority
Conservatives realized they had to appeal to public opinion and sponsor movements of national unity from the top down