States of Consciousness Chapter 7 States of Consciousness Table of Contents Exit

Some Early Definitions Consciousness: All the sensations, perceptions, memories, and feelings you are aware of at any instant Waking Consciousness: Normal, clear, organized, alert awareness Altered State of Consciousness (ASC): Changes that occur in quality and pattern of mental activity Table of Contents Exit

Sleep Definition: Innate, biological rhythm Microsleep: Brief shift in brain activity to pattern normally recorded during sleep Sleep Deprivation: Sleep loss; being deprived of needed amounts of sleep Sleep-Deprivation Psychosis: Confusion, disorientation, delusions, and hallucinations that occur because of sleep loss Sleep Patterns: Daily rhythms of sleep and waking Table of Contents Exit

Fig. 7.1 Not all animals sleep, but like humans, those that do have powerful sleep needs. For example, dolphins must voluntarily breathe air, which means they face the choice of staying awake or drowning. The dolphin solves this problem by sleeping on just one side of its brain at a time! The other half of the brain, which remains awake, controls breathing (Jouvet, 1999). Table of Contents Exit

Measuring Sleep Changes Electroencephalograph (EEG): Brain-wave machine; amplifies and records electrical activity in the brain Beta Waves: Small fast waves associated with alertness and awakeness Alpha Waves: Large, slow waves associated with relaxation and falling asleep Table of Contents Exit

Fig. 7.5 Changes in brain-wave patterns associated with various stages of sleep. Actually, most wave types are present at all times, but they occur more or less frequently in various sleep stages. Table of Contents Exit

Stages of Sleep Stage 1: Small, irregular waves produced in light sleep (people may or may not say they were asleep) Hypnic Jerk: Reflex muscle contraction Stage 2: Deeper sleep; sleep spindles (short bursts of distinctive brain-wave activity) appear Stage 3: Deeper sleep; Delta waves appear; very large and slow Stage 4: Deepest level of normal sleep; almost purely Delta waves Table of Contents Exit

Fig. 7.2 Sleep rhythms. Bars show periods of sleep during the fourth, fifth, and sixth weeks of an experiment with a human subject. During unscheduled periods, the subject was allowed to select times of sleep and lighting. In his case, the result was a 25-hour sleep rhythm. Notice how his free-running rhythm began to advance around the clock. When periods of darkness were scheduled (colored area), the rhythm quickly resynchronized with 24-hour days. (Adapted from Czeisler, 1981.) Table of Contents Exit

Fig. 7. 3 Development of sleep patterns Fig. 7.3 Development of sleep patterns. Short cycles of sleep and waking gradually become the night-day cycle of an adult. While most adults don’t take naps, midafternoon sleepiness is a natural part of the sleep cycles. (After Williams et al., 1964.) Table of Contents Exit

Fig. 7.4 These Siamese twins share the same blood supply, yet one sleeps while the other is awake. (Photo by Yale Joel, Life Magazine. © Time, Inc.) Table of Contents Exit

States of Sleep Rapid Eye Movements (REM): Associated with dreaming; sleep is very light Body is very still during REM sleep Lack of muscle paralysis during REM sleep is called REM Behavioral Disorder Non-REM (NREM) Sleep: Occurs during stages 1, 2, 3, and 4; no rapid eye movement occurs Seems to help us recover from daily fatigue Table of Contents Exit

Fig. 7.6 (a) Average proportion of time adults spend daily in REM sleep and NREM sleep. REM periods add up to about 20 percent of total sleep time. (b) Typical changes in stages of sleep during the night. Notice that dreams mostly coincide with REM periods. Table of Contents Exit

Sleep Disturbances Insomnia: Difficulty in getting to sleep, frequent nighttime awakenings, or waking too early Sleeping pills exacerbate insomnia; cause decrease in REM and Stage 4 sleep and may cause dependency Drug-Dependency Insomnia: Sleeplessness that follows withdrawal from sleeping pills Table of Contents Exit

Types and Causes of Insomnia Temporary Insomnia: Brief period of sleeplessness caused by worry, stress, and excitement Avoid fighting it and read a book, for example, until you’re struggling to stay awake Chronic Insomnia: Exists if sleeping troubles last for more than three weeks Adopt regular schedule; go to bed at the same time each night, for example Tryptophan: Amino acid (chemical) that increases serotonin levels and therefore leads to sleepiness Table of Contents Exit

Sleep Disturbances Sleepwalking (Somnambulism): Occurs in NREM sleep during Stages 3 and 4 Sleeptalking: Speaking while asleep; occurs in NREM sleep Table of Contents Exit

Some Other Sleep Disturbances Nightmares: Bad dreams Occur during REM sleep May occur once or twice a month; brief and easily (unfortunately) remembered Imagery Rehearsal: Mentally rehearse the changed dream before you go to sleep again; may help to eliminate nightmares Table of Contents Exit

Night Terrors Night Terrors: Total panic occurs; hallucinations may occur Occurs during Stage 4 sleep Most common in childhood; may occur in adults Not remembered Table of Contents Exit

Physiological Sleep Problems Narcolepsy: Sudden irresistible sleep attacks May suffer from catalepsy: Sudden, temporary muscle paralysis leading to complete body collapse Sleep Apnea: Interrupted breathing during sleep; cause of very loud snoring Apnea can be treated by Surgery Weight loss Breathing mask Table of Contents Exit

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS; Crib Death) Sudden, unexplained death of healthy infant (infants should sleep on back or on side to try to prevent) Remember “Back to sleep” Table of Contents Exit

Fig. 7.7 Infants at risk for SIDS are often attached to devices that monitor breathing and heart rate during sleep. An alarm sounds to alert parents if either pulse or respiration falters. SIDS rarely occurs after an infant is 1 year old. Babies at risk for SIDS should be placed on their sides or on their backs. (Photo courtesy of Healthdyne, Inc.) Table of Contents Exit

Dreams Psychodynamic (Freudian) Theory: Emphasizes internal conflicts, motives, and unconscious forces Wish Fulfillment: Freudian belief that many dreams are expressions of unconscious desires Much evidence to refute this Dream Symbols: Images that have a deeper symbolic meaning Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis: Dream content may be affected by motor commands in the brain that are not carried out Table of Contents Exit

Hypnosis Altered state of consciousness characterized by intensely narrowed attention and increased openness to suggestion Mesmer: Believed he could cure diseases by passing magnets over body; true “animal magnetism” (“mesmerize” means to hypnotize) Must cooperate to become hypnotized Table of Contents Exit

© Dan Francis/Mardan Photography Fig. 7.9 Arrange three chairs as shown. Have someone recline as shown. Ask him to lift slightly while you remove the middle chair. Accept the applause gracefully! (Concerning hypnosis and similar phenomena, the moral, of course, is “Suspend judgment until you have something solid to stand on.”) Table of Contents EXIT

Hypnosis (cont.) Hypnotic Susceptibility: How easily a person can be hypnotized Basic Suggestion Effect: Tendency of hypnotized people to carry out suggested actions as though they were involuntary Table of Contents Exit

Hypnosis Can’s and Cannot’s Help people relax Reduce pain Get people to make better progress in therapy Hypnosis CANNOT Produce acts of superhuman strength Produce age regression Force you to do things against your will Table of Contents Exit

Stage Hypnosis Simulation of hypnotic effects Tricks of the Trade: Waking Suggestibility: People on stage do not want to spoil the act, so they will follow any instruction Selection of Responsive Subjects: Any “volunteer” who does not get hypnotized in the group on stage and does not follow instructions is “thrown off” The Hypnosis Label Disinhibits: On stage, once you are “in a hypnotic trance,” your responsibility for actions is removed; you can do whatever you want! Table of Contents Exit

More Stage Hypnosis “Tricks of the Trade” Hypnotists as Director: Once they are in a trance, the “volunteers” are suddenly the show’s stars, and they will act like it. The hypnotists only need to direct them Stage Hypnotists Use Tricks: Stage hypnosis is 50% deception and 50% taking advantage of the situation Conclusion: Stage hypnotists entertain; they rarely hypnotize Table of Contents Exit

Sensory Deprivation (SD) Any major reduction in amount or variety of sensory stimulation Benefits Sensory enhancement Relaxation Changing habits Benefits called REST: Restricted Environmental Stimulation Therapy Table of Contents Exit

Fig. 7. 10 A sensory isolation chamber Fig. 7.10 A sensory isolation chamber. Small floatation tanks like the one pictured have been used by psychologists to study the effects of mild sensory deprivation. Subjects float in darkness and silence. The shallow body-temperature water contains hundreds of pounds of Epson salts so that the subjects float near the surface. Mild sensory deprivation produces deep relaxation. Table of Contents Exit

Drugs and Altered States of Consciousness Psychoactive Drug: Substance capable of altering attention, judgment, memory, time sense, self-control, emotion, or perception Stimulant: Substance that increases activity in body and nervous system Depressant: Substance that decreases activity in body and nervous system Table of Contents Exit

Fig. 7. 11 Spectrum and continuum of drug action Fig. 7.11 Spectrum and continuum of drug action. Many drugs can de rated on a stimulation-depression scale according to their effects on the central nervous system. Although LSD, mescaline, and marijuana are listed here, the stimulation-depression scale is less relevant to these drugs. The principal characteristic os such hallucinogens is the mind altering quality. Table of Contents Exit

Physical Dependence Addiction based on drug tolerance and withdrawal symptoms Drug Tolerance: Reduction in body’s response to a drug Withdrawal Symptoms: Physical illness following withdrawal of a drug Table of Contents Exit

Psychological Dependence Drug dependence based on psychological or emotional needs Drug is necessary to maintain comfort and well-being Crave drug and its rewarding qualities Table of Contents Exit

Stimulants Amphetamine: Synthetic stimulants that excite nervous system Dexedrine and Methamphetamine are two types of stimulants Amphetamine Psychosis: Loss of contact with reality because of amphetamine use; user tends to have paranoid delusions Table of Contents Exit

Cocaine Central Nervous System stimulant derived from leaves of coca plant; also used as local anesthetic From 1886-1906, Coca-Cola did indeed have cocaine in it! Highly addictive drug Anhedonia (Inability to Feel Pleasure): Common after cocaine withdrawal Table of Contents Exit

Designer Drugs Chemically engineered version of an existing drug; made to skirt drug laws MDMA (Ecstasy): Chemically similar to amphetamine; created by small variations in the drug’s structure Risks of using MDMA are unclear May cause severe liver damage and fatal heat exhaustion Repeated use damages serotonergic brain cells Table of Contents Exit

Caffeine Most frequently used psychoactive drug in North America; present in colas, chocolate, coffee, tea Causes tremors, sweating, talkativeness, tinnitus, suppresses fatigue or sleepiness, increases alertness May be hazardous to pregnant women if used excessively; may cause birth defects Caffeinism: Physiological dependence on caffeine Symptoms: Insomnia, irritability, loss of appetite, chills, racing heart, elevated body temperature Table of Contents Exit

Nicotine Natural stimulant found mainly in tobacco In large doses may cause stomach pain, vomiting, diarrhea, confusion, tremors Addictive Smoking responsible for 97% of lung cancer deaths in men, 74% in women Sum: DON’T SMOKE; SMOKING KILLS (SO DOES CHEWING TOBACCO) Table of Contents Exit

Sedatives Barbiturates: Sedative drugs that depress brain activity Seconal and Amytal are two types GHB (Gamma-Hydroxybutyrate): Central Nervous System (CNS) depressant that relaxes and sedates; combination of degreasing solvent and drain cleaner Sedative effects may result in nausea, loss of muscle control, and either sleep or a loss of consciousness Inhibits gag reflex, so some choke to death on their own vomit Addictive and deadly Table of Contents Exit

Tranquilizers Tranquilizers: Lower anxiety and reduce tension Valium, Xanax, Halcion, and Librium are four types Rohypnol: Related to Valium; lowers inhibitions and produces relaxation or intoxication. Larger doses can induce short-term amnesia and sleep Date rape drug because it’s odorless and tasteless (“Roofies”) Drug Interaction: One drug significantly enhances the effect of another Table of Contents Exit

Alcohol Ethyl Alcohol: Intoxicating element in fermented and distilled liquors NOT a stimulant but DOES lower inhibitions Depressant Binge Drinking: Consuming five or more drinks in a short time, or four or more for women Serious sign of alcohol abuse May lead up to 10 percent loss of brain power, especially memory Table of Contents Exit

Fig. 7.12 The behavioral effects of alcohol are related to blood alcohol content and the resulting suppression of higher mental function. Arrows indicate the typical threshold for legal intoxication in the United States. (From Jozef Cohen, Eyewitness Series in Psychology, p. 44. Copyright © by Rand McNally and Company. Reprinted by permission.) Table of Contents Exit

How a Drinking Problem May Develop (Jellinek, 1960) Initial Phase: Social drinker turns to alcohol to relieve tension or feel good Crucial Phase: Person begins to lose control over drinking Chronic Phase: Person is now alcohol dependent Table of Contents Exit

Treatment for Alcohol Abuse and Dependence Detoxification: Withdrawal of the person from alcohol; occurs in a medical setting and is tightly controlled; oftentimes necessary before long-term treatment begins Table of Contents Exit

Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) and Alternatives Alcoholics Anonymous (AA): Worldwide self-help organization composed of recovering alcoholics; emphasizes admitting powerlessness over alcohol usage and wanting to recover Spiritual component Free; around for over 70 years! Rational Recovery, and Secular Organizations for Sobriety (SOS): Non-spiritual AA Alternatives Table of Contents Exit

Some Hallucinogens Hallucinogen: Substance that alters or distorts sensory perceptions Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD): Hallucinogen that can produce hallucinations and other psychotic symptoms Mescaline (Peyote) and Psilocybin (Magic Mushrooms) PCP (Angel Dust): Initially can have hallucinogenic effects; also an anesthetic and has stimulant and depressant effects Table of Contents Exit

Marijuana (Pot) Cannabis Sativa (Marijuana; Pot): Leaves and flowers of the hemp plant Active Chemical: THC Effects: Relaxation, time distortion, perceptual distortions Psychologically, NOT physiologically, addictive Hashish: Resinous material scraped from leaves of the hemp plant; higher concentration of THC Table of Contents Exit

Fig. 7.13 This thin slice of a rat’s brain has been washed with a radioactive THC-like drug. Yellowish areas show where the brain is rich in THC receptors. In addition to the cortex, or outer layer of the brain, THC receptors are found in abundance in areas involved in the control of coordinated movement. Naturally occurring chemicals similar to THC may help the brain cope with pain and stress. However, when THC is used as a drug, high dosages can cause paranoia, hallucinations, and dizziness (Julien, 1998). Table of Contents Exit

Some Health Risks of Using Marijuana May cause precancerous changes in lung cells May suppress immune system, perhaps increasing risk of disease THC may cause a higher rate of miscarriages Activity levels in the cerebellum are lower than normal in pot users Pot may damage some of the brain’s memory centers Table of Contents Exit

Dream Interpretation Freud: Four dream processes (mental filters) that hide true purposes of dreams Condensation: Combining several people, objects, or events into a single dream image Displacement: Directing emotions or actions toward safe or unimportant dream images Symbolization: Expressing feelings or ideas symbolically in dreams; not literal expression Secondary Elaboration: Making a dream more logical and adding details while remembering it Table of Contents Exit

Dream Interpretation: A Different View Perls: Most dreams are a special message about what is missing in our lives, what we avoid doing when awake, or feelings that we need to re-own Table of Contents Exit

Lucid Dreaming Person feels fully awake within the dream and feels capable of normal thought and action Table of Contents Exit