Nationalism in Africa and the Middle East

Describe how Africans resisted colonial rule. Objectives Describe how Africans resisted colonial rule. Analyze how nationalism grew in Africa. Explain how Turkey and Persia modernized. Summarize how European mandates contributed to the growth of Arab nationalism. Understand the roots of conflict between Jews and Arabs in the Palestinian mandate. 2

apartheid – a policy of rigid segregation in South Africa Terms and People apartheid – a policy of rigid segregation in South Africa Pan-Africanism – a movement that emphasized the unity of Africans and people of African descent worldwide négritude movement – a group of writers who expressed pride in their African roots and protested colonial rule Asia Minor – the Turkish peninsula between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea 3

Terms and People (continued) Pan-Arabism – a nationalist movement built on the shared heritage of Arabs who lived in lands from the Arabian Peninsula to North Africa Balfour Declaration – a 1917 British declaration that advocated setting up a national home for Jews in Palestine

How did nationalism contribute to changes in Africa and the Middle East following World War I? During World War I, many soldiers came from the colonies. They expected that at the end of the war, their work would be acknowledged and rewarded. When the Treaty of Versailles was signed, the people of the European colonies were ignored. As nationalist sympathies grew, the people of Africa and the Middle East fought to obtain their independence. 5

Work on plantations or in mines In the early 1900s, almost all of Africa was ruled by European imperialist powers. Work on plantations or in mines Pay taxes to colonial governments Carry identification cards Live and travel only where allowed by Europeans Under imperialism, Europeans forced Africans to: 6

They hoped to be rewarded with independence after the war. During World War I, more than one million Africans fought on the side of the Allies for their colonial rulers. They hoped to be rewarded with independence after the war. At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, the Allies denied independence to African colonies and kept them under European control. 7

Protesters used many techniques. They: Throughout the 1920s and 1930s, Africans in Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa, and other countries resisted the colonial system. Protesters used many techniques. They: Settled illegally on European- owned plantations Organized illegal labor unions Formed unauthorized associations and political parties 8

In the 1920s, a movement known as Pan-Africanism encouraged African nationalism. French-speaking writers in West Africa and the Caribbean started the négritude movement. A leader of the négritude movement, Jamaican-born Marcus Garvey, spoke of “Africa for Africans” and demanded an end to colonial rule.

The Allies failed to approve a charter of rights for Africans The Allies failed to approve a charter of rights for Africans. Still, the Congress established cooperation between African and African American leaders. At the Pan-African Congress in 1919, African and African American leaders called on the Allies to grant Africans a charter of rights.

Could not hold the best-paying jobs At that time, blacks: Could not hold the best-paying jobs Had to carry passes Could not vote Were forced to live on crowded “reserves” Between 1910 and 1940, whites in South Africa imposed a system of racial segregation. Segregation in South Africa became even stricter after 1948, when apartheid became law. 11

Demanded rights for black South Africans In response, South African blacks formed the African National Congress (ANC). The ANC: Was formed in South Africa in 1912 by African Christian churches and African-run newspapers Demanded rights for black South Africans Worked through legal means to protest unfair laws Built a framework for later political action The South African government ignored the ANC.

Egyptians united behind the Wafd party. The most successful nationalist movement in Africa after World War I took place in Egypt. Egyptians united behind the Wafd party. Protests, strikes, and riots forced Britain to grant Egypt independence in 1922. Britain still controlled Egypt’s monarchy and left troops to guard the Suez Canal. During the 1930s, many young Egyptians joined the Muslim Brotherhood, a group formed to foster broad Islamic nationalism. 13

Nationalist movements also transformed the Middle East after World War I. The defeated Ottoman empire was on the point of collapse. The postwar mandate system sparked wide resentment of Western influence. In Turkey and Persia, new leaders sought to create modern nations.

The Middle East, 1920s

In Asia Minor, Turks resisted Western control and fought to build a modern nation apart from other Middle Eastern nations. The sultan of Turkey signed the Treaty of Sèvres in 1920, which gave a great deal of Turkish land to Greece. Nationalist Turks, led by Mustafa Kemal, overthrew the sultan, defeated Greece, formed the modern Republic of Turkey, and negotiated a new treaty.

Kemal took the name Atatürk (“father of the Turks”) and led the Turkish republic with an iron hand. Between 1923 and his death in 1938, Atatürk was responsible for many reforms. He: Moved to modernize, Westernize, and secularize Turkey Encouraged industrial expansion Gave women the right to vote and to work outside the home

Atatürk’s reforms were successful, and nationalists in Persia (present-day Iran) followed his lead. In 1925, army officer Reza Khan overthrew the shah and rushed to modernize and Westernize Persia. He angered some Muslim religious leaders by replacing Islamic law with secular law and introducing Western ways. Khan also persuaded the British company that controlled Persia’s oil industry to hire Persians and to give Persia a larger share of the profits.

Arabs felt betrayed by the mandate system. During World War I, the Allies promised Arabs independence in return for help against the Ottoman empire. But under the peace treaties, Arab lands became British or French mandates. Arabs felt betrayed by the mandate system. This anger stirred nationalist feelings among the Arabs across borders. 19

Arab nationalists promoted Pan-Arabism. This movement linked people in present-day Syria, Jordan, Iraq, Egypt, Algeria, and Morocco. The goal was to free Arab lands from foreign domination. Pan-Arabists sought to stop the exploitation of Arab oil reserves by the European powers.

The British mandate of Palestine was a center of conflict between Arab and Jewish settlers. In 1897, Theodor Herzl had founded the Zionist movement in response to growing European anti- Semitism. The goal of the movement was to rebuild a Jewish state in Palestine. In addition, pogroms in Russia prompted thousands of Russian Jews to migrate to Palestine. New immigrants joined the Jewish community that had lived there since biblical times.

During World War I, the Allies had promised Palestine to both the Arabs and the Jews. The Allies promised Arabs their own kingdoms in former Ottoman lands, including Palestine, after the end of World War I. In 1917, the British tried to win the support of European Jews by issuing the Balfour Declaration. It advocated setting up a national home for the Jewish people. The declaration said civil and religious rights of non-Jewish communities in Palestine had to be preserved.

Jewish settlers set up towns, factories, and farms. Arabs attacked Jewish settlements, hoping to discourage immigration. In response, Jewish settlers established their own defense forces. For the rest of the century, Arabs and Jews fought over the land. From 1919 to 1940, many Jews and Arabs migrated to Palestine. Tensions between the two groups developed.