The Cognitive Level of Analysis Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process with reference to research studies. Memory Schema – baddely and hitch Atkinson and schiffrin Multi Store Model

Memory from the start... Cognitive theorists focussed on processes (Ebbingaus) Biological researchers wanted to find the ‘engram’ (Flourens and Lashley) Today, studied cooperatively! Accepted that there are different types of memory Declarative Procedural Episodic All appear to be processed in different parts of the brain. Cognitive and biological theorists originally approached the study of memory from two very different perspectives.  Cognitive theorists, like Hermann Ebbinghaus, focused on processes; biological researchers, like Flourens and Lashley, wanted to find “the engram.” Today cognitive and biological theorists work hand-in-hand in the study of memory. There are several different types of memory: declarative, procedural, and episodic memory are just three examples.  They appear to be processed in different parts of the brain.

Ancient history... Plato described the mind as like an aviary, with memories flying around all over the place. He coined the term ‘bird-brain’ to describe someone forgetful whose thoughts were constantly flying around so that they couldn’t keep hold of them. How does this analogy hold up? What are the issues with this simplistic spatial metaphor? it doesn't explain how we can very rapidly decide we don't know something • the thorough searching implied does not seem to occur • retrieval seems to make use of a flexible system, rather than a rigid placing of items

The Multi-Store Model, 1968 Atkinson and Shiffrin Sensory Memory Short-term memory Long-term memory Assumes that the stores operate as a unit and in uniform fashion Unlikely that all info in the LTM is stored in shelf-like linear blocks Does not allow for the idea of memories created without repetition Increased rehearsal does not always lead to storage Does not explain reconstructive memory Sensory Memory Modality specific Limited to a few seconds Short-term memory Around 7 items Limited to 6-12 seconds Material quickly lost if not given attention Long-term memory Vast storehouse of information Believed to be indefinite duration and infinite capacity Not an exact replica Memories can be distorted We fill in gaps... The Multi-Store Model, 1968 Atkinson and Shiffrin Follows the Plato idea of specifics... Loss (unavailable) Decay

Support for Atkinson and Shiffrin The Serial Positioning Curve Glanzer and Cunitz Free recall of 20 items Primacy and recency effect support the idea of the STS Primacy suggests that information is stored and then retrieved Recency is the active STM, prior to encoding into the LTM Interference during this stage prevents it from being stored The Serial Positioning Curve (Glanzer & Cunitz) demonstrates the phenomena of primacy and recency effect.  This seems to support the ideas of STM and LTM as proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin. When being delayed 20 secs, asked to count backwards – interrupted the encoding and recalling of the later items. Proves there are two processes in retrieving information, and that time is required for storage to take place

Baddely and Hitch – 1974 Working memory Model Based on the Multi-Store Model Challenged the view that STM is a single store controlling system slave systems Baddely and Hitch

Baddely and Hitch – 1974 Working memory Model The Central Executive Controlling system – monitors the other aspects Limited capacity, but modality free Most important job is attentional control Automatic level Based on habit – controlled automatically by stimuli from environment Supervisory attention level Emergencies, or new strategies – when what is there is no longer sufficient attention Baddely later said attentional control was the most important e.g. – cycling Basic habit is to pedal – automatic level If a car swerves towards you, you need a new strategy – supervisory attention Any other examples of this? • Switching of retrieval plans • Timesharing in dual-task studies • Selective attention • Temporary activation of long-term memory.

Baddely and Hitch – 1974 Working memory Model The Episodic Buffer Recall of specific episodes Details of a place The sound of a band/song Links information across the domains Time sequencing, chronology A temporary passive display store until the information is needed The processing takes place elsewhere subconscious Like a tv screen – it holds the info, while you look at it/access it Added in 2000, following seeing amnesiacs have a strong short term memory, despite no long term memory

Baddely and Hitch – 1974 Working memory Model The Phonological Loop Articulatory Control System Inner voice – speech perception Holds information in verbal form A telephone number you repeat to yourself Phonological Store Inner ear – speech production Speech-based material in phonological form Info only lasts 1.5-2 secs if not repeated by the articulatory control system sound system Baddely and Hitch

Baddely and Hitch – 1974 Working memory Model The Visuospatial Sketchpad Inner eye Visual and spatial information from either the sensory memory or the LTM Limited capacity Visual Cache – stores form and colour information Inner Scribe – spatial and movement information vision The inner scribe transfers info to the visual cache and the central exec

Baddely and Hitch – 1974 Working memory Model Evidence! Dual task techniques Interference tasks A cognitive task, using the majority of the memory ...Whilst performing a second cognitive task If two tasks use separate sections, they should be performed as well together as apart If the two tasks interfere with each other so that one or both are impaired, then it is assumed that both tasks use the same component in STM We’re going to do this! Recite a poem whilst answering maths questions?

Baddely and Hitch – 1974 Working memory Model Evidence! Dual task techniques Interference tasks – Baddely and Hitch, 1974 Read whilst trying to memorise a sequence of numbers Clear and systematic increase in reasoning time if people had to undergo a memory test at the same time. Task was significantly impaired when remembering 6 numbers, but not when remembering 3. Baddely and Hitch You can watch tv – pictures and sounds – separate sections But it’s very hard to listen to two people at once.

Baddely and Hitch – 1974 Working memory Model Evaluation! More satisfactory than Multi-Store Model Active storage and processing, rather than passive Useful for all types of cognitive tasks Explains why people are able to multi task Working memory test battery for children Pickering and Gathercole Working memory capacity increases from ages 5 to 15 Deficits in the phonological loop have been shown to link with problems in maths and reading Passive – not reacting visibly or readily Serious role in learning. Capacity of working memory varies enormously across similar age groups. Visuospatial sketchpad shown to be linked with mathematical skill. Maths performance can be predicted significantly through visual tests – like the CATs/IQ test Robins et al’s 1996 dual task study