1. Cognitive Level of Analysis

2. Principles of Cognitive Level of Analysis 1.Mental processes guide behavior. 2.There is a biological basis for cognitive processing (but the focus should be about how the brain translates into the mind). 3.The mind can be studied scientifically. 1.Culture can influence cognitive processes.

3. Methods of research  Experiments – famous examples?  Case studies  Cognitive neuroscience – use of brain imaging techniques  Correlational studies commonly use these methods

4. Schemas  Schema: a cognitive structure that organizes our knowledge of information.  Allow us to process information more efficiently.  Allow us to generate expectations/assumptions.  Regulate behavior.  Are stable and resistant to change – encourage continuity.

5. Schema Theory  The theory posits that we never truly have new experiences because we process all new information through our existing schemas.  Our previous knowledge (stored in our memory and organized into schemas) determines how we process information.

6. The Research Basis  Bartlett (1932) – tested memory using serial and repeated reproduction. Participants processed the stories to fit schemas.  Suggested a reconstructive memory process.  Bransford and Johsnon (1972) – studied the processing stage at which schemas would influence memory. Had participants remember a laundry folding story.  Found that providing a title prior to learning activated a schema, but providing it afterward did not. Schemas are accessed during information processing.

7. Evaluation  Can you think of problems with Schema Theory?  It’s clear schemas are important to memory – but it’s not clear how they’re acquired.  Also not clear HOW they influence the cognitive process.  Schemas are not observable – and the theory is somewhat vague as to the true nature of schemas.  More recently, theorists argue that culture builds schemas based on norms.  Biological basis, a cognitive process, and culturally built – yay!

8. Know the Atkinson Shiffrin Model! (multi-store model) RESEARCH BASIS:  Peterson and Peterson (1959) found that as length of distraction during a memory task increased, memory decreased.  Suggests the storage capacity of STM.  Free recall tasks – Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) – serial position effect suggests the role of STM and LTM.  Case of HM – surgery affected his hippocampus, he could not transfer STM to LTM, but he could recall LTM  Suggests that different stores exist

9. Working Memory Model STM is not a single store – memory is active, not just a passive storage system.  Baddeley and Hitch (1974) – participants were asked questions and sequences of numbers at the same time, were able to remember both.  KF case study – injury led to deficit in verbal info, but not in visual info  Suggests separate STM stores.  Problems? What is the central executive? A comprehensive model?

10. Levels of Processing Model De-emphasizes the memory stores to focus on initial encoding. Proposes three methods of encoding: structural, phonological, and semantic (the deepest method).  Craik and Tulving (1975) – participants memorized target words and answered questions based around the different levels of processing.  Found that semantic encoding was best remembered.

11. Reliability of Memory  What does Bartlett’s (1932) research suggest?  Describe Loftus’ (1974) study.  What does it suggest about memory?

12. Distractions?  Loftus et al (1987) studied the weapons effect – participants watched a video of a man with either a pen or bloody knife.  Which group was able to more accurately identify the man?  Questions of ecological validity with memory lab experiments.  Ihlebaek et al (2003) had participants watch a video or observe a staged robbery.  Video condition actually remembered the robbery better.  What does this suggest?

13. Is all eyewitness memory bad?  Yuille and Cutshall (1986) studied people that witnessed real robberies and found that misleading questions often did not distort memory, especially for those close to the event.  Riniolo et al (2003) found that in general survivors of the Titantic recalled events accurately.

14. Culture and Memory  We may have an own-race bias – we remember faces from people of our own race better than others.  Write et al (2001) studied black and white participants that were approached by a stranger, and then asked questions about that stranger later.  Participants were most accurate if the stranger was of the same race.

15. Biology and Memory  What is the role of the hippocampus in memory?  Alzheimer’s Disease severely impacts memory – especially episodic and semantic memory, but not procedural memory.  The medial temporal lobe (location of hippocampus) is first brain region affected by AD. It kills neurons involved in the production of Ach, an important neurotransmitter in the hippocampus.