1. Memory
Ms. Carmelitano

2. Memory “Human Beings are Information Processors”
We take information into our brains, and store it for later, thus creating a memory
When we see/experience something, we must encode it, in order for it to become a memory
How does this happen?
There are three different theories

3. 1. Multi-Store Model Idea that humans are information processors
Memory consists of a number of separate “stores”
Memory process is sequential
Processes include:
Attention, coding, and rehearsal
You must pay attention to something to remember it
You give that thing a “form” to remember it (encoding)
You must then rehearse, or repeat the memory so that it can be stored

4. 1. Multi-Store Model Atkinson and Shiffrin 1968
The basic structure of memory
Encoding
Sensory
Input

5. 1. Multi-Store Model Sensory Memory Short Term Memory
Information comes into the mind through the senses.
Information will stay here for a few seconds
Short Term Memory
It then goes into the Short Term Memory
Stays for 6-12 seconds
Can only hold 7 items at a time
Quickly lost if not given attention

6. Long Term Memory Unlimited Capacity
Memories are encoded, and placed into the LTM
Not exact memories, stored in outline form
When we retrieve information, we may fill in gaps to create a meaningful memory

7. Peterson and Peterson (1959)
Participants were presented with sets of triplets to memorize (three letters) (IE: KDF, CLS)
After showing the participants the triplets, they were asked to complete a counting task which lasted either: 3,6,9,12,15, or 18 seconds. (Counting back wards by 3’s)
As the amount of time spent on the counting task increased, the ability to recall the triplets became worse
At a 3-second interval, 80% of the triplets were recalled, at the 18 second interval less than 10% were recalled
This is because when rehearsal is prevented, information is lost rapidly from the STM

8. Cat Fig
Car Apple
Face Grass
Tractor Grade
Shoe Tire
Clog Leaf
Tiger
Rain
Tree

9. Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) Serial Position Curve
Participants were presented with a list of 15 words and told to memorize them
Half were asked to recall the words immediately (IFR – immediate free recall)
The other half were asked to recall after a delay of 30 seconds (during the delay they were asked to count backwards in threes from a 3-digit number) (DFR – delayed free recall)
The researchers hypothesized that participants would recall the first few and last few words, but would forget the middle words

10. Serial Production Curve
Primacy effects: The ability to recall the first few words in a set because the new stimulus received the most attention, and had the most rehearsal, transferring the words from the STM to the LTM
Recency effects: The ability to recall the last few words in a set because they remain in the STS when recall commenced

11. Results
IFR group recalled words at the beginning and the end of the list (Serial Position)
DFR group did not recall the words at the end because the 30 second delay caused decay in the STM

12. 2. Working Memory Baddeley and Hitch 1974
Based on the Multi-Store Model
Challenges the idea that Short Term Memory is a single store
This model shows different ways the Short Term Memory creates and recalls Long Term Memories

13. Encoding

14. 2. Working Memory
Long-Term

16. Working Memory The Central Executive:
“Controlling system” which controls the other “slave systems”
Processes sensory information
Most important function is attentional control
This tells your mind what to focus on
The Automatic Level: Based on habit and controlled by stimuli from the environment
The Supervisory Attentional Level: Deals with emergencies or creates new strategies when old ones are no longer sufficient
You are aware of this attention

17. Working Memory Episodic Buffer Temporary, unconscious storage
Imagine having to consciously remember the sound of a band, or a landscape
The information has already been processed in other parts of the brain, and will temporarily stay in the episodic buffer until you need it

18. Phonological Loop Two components
Articulatory Control System: (inner voice) converts written information into a verbal form
When you read a word, or phone number, you are able to “repeat it”
When you are preparing to speak, the memory of how to pronounce words occurs here
Phonological Store: (inner ear) Holds speech-based material in a phonological form. You can recall sounds that you have heard

20. Visuospatial Sketchpad
Recall of visual-spatial information
Processes it from sensory information to long term memory

22. Evidence for the Working Model
Dual-Task experiments
Baddeley and Hitch (1974)
Asked participants to attempt to read and memorize a prose while also remembering a list of numbers
This is almost impossible, because it would require the same component of short term memory

23. Multi-Tasking However, we are able to multi-task
This is because if the activity involves multiple components, we are able to do both at once
It is easier to perform a visual and a verbal task at the same time rather than two visual or two verbal tasks

24. Dual-Task Experiment (2)
Baddley and Hitch 1974
When the participants were asked to verbally answer a true/false question and memorize a set of numbers, they were able to do so
Although there is a slight delay as the number of digits increased, it was not significant
This is because memorizing digits occurs in the phonological loop, and reasoning occurs in the central executive

25. Long Term Memory Long Term Memory Explicit/Declarative memories
Implicit/Non-Declarative
Memories
Emotional Memories (memory of how emotional states)
HOW
Semantic Memories
(memory of facts) WHAT
Episodic Memories (memory of events) WHEN
Procedural Memories (memory of how to do things)
HOW

26. 3. Long Term Memory – Eric Kandel
Long Term Memory is divided into two systems, explicit memory and implicit memory
Explicit Memory: Fact based memories the we are consciously aware of
Semantic Memory: General knowledge
Ms. C is a teacher
Episodic Memory: Memory for personal experiences and events
I saw Ms. C this morning

27. Implicit Memory: Memories we are not consciously aware of
Procedural Memory: Non-Conscious memory for skills, habits, actions
Emotional Memory: How to react emotionally
Crying during a sad movie
Feeling fear in a haunted house

28. Brain Localization
The Hippocampus plays a role in the formation of explicit memories
Kandel found that people with hippocampal damage can no longer form now explicit memories but can form and recall implicit memories
The Amygdala plays a role in the formation of implicit memories
Neuroscientist LeDoux has found that certain memories have emotional significance, which is why we remember them better

29. Memory and the Brain Biological factors of memory Eric Kandel
Researched memory at the cellular level
As a person learns, there are changes in the synapses of the brain
As we learn, neurons grow more connections and form neural networks

30. Clive Wearing Case Study
Neurologist who studied him – Oliver Sacks 2007
Clive suffered from the most extensive amnesia ever recorded
He suffered from Retrograde(loss of previous memories) and Anterograde (loss of ability to make new memories) amnesia
Clive had suffered brain damage to his hippocampus and frontal lobe regions
He could not form any new memories, even for a moment

31. Evidence of a distributed memory system
Wearing was unable to transfer new information into his long-term memory
He could still remember how to play the piano and conduct music, like he could before his illness – part of his implicit memory
Still felt affection and love for his wife
Wearing’s amygdala was not damaged, therefore his implicit memories remained in-tact
Evidence of a distributed memory system

32. Study of HM Studied by Milner and Scoville 1957
Because of a head injury at 9 years old, he began to suffer from seizures
Dr’s removed a portion of temporal lobe, including the hippocampus, to stop the seizures
Became unable to form new memories – anterograde amnesia
He cannot remember faces of those he meets, or remember books he reads
However, HM had his previous memories

33. HM In 1997 his brain was studied with an MRI scanner
Showed damage to the hippocampus and amygdala
This supports the theory that these areas are responsible for formation of new memories