MEMORY Memory is the retention of information or experience over time. INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY Processes of Memory Encoding Storage Retrieval

According to an Information Processing Theory, our memory system works similar to a computer utilizing the 3 stages of the memory process.

ENCODING The process by which information gets into memory storage by transforming what we perceive, think or feel into an enduring memory.  Attention  Selective – paying attention to one thing, while ignoring others (purposeful).  Divided – trying to concentrate on more than one activity at a time.(multi-tasking)  Sustained – (vigilance) the ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time.  Elaboration  Links between some new information and everything you already know. The more elaborate the processing, the better the memory  Levels of processing allow the use of organizational techniques to make associations or connections allowing us to remember in-depth information.  Imagery  One of the most powerful ways to remember is to use mental imagery. (visual walks)

STORAGE Memories need to be properly stored after encoding. Storage encompasses how information is retained overtime. 3 Memory Systems Sensory – last only briefly (1-2 seconds), it is rich and detailed but is lost quickly unless we transfer it into STM or LTM. Short Term Memory (STM) – limited capacity where information is held less than a minute unless a strategy is used to retain it longer. Working memory – holds information temporarily Chunking improved STM by grouping information making large amounts manageable. Rehearsal– conscious repetition of information. Long Term Memory – unlimited capacity

LONG-TERM MEMORY Once information passes from sensory to working memory, it can be encoded into long-term memory Long-Term Memory Short-Term Memory Sensory Input Sensory Memory Attention Encoding Retrieval Maintenance Rehearsal

LONG TERM MEMORY (LTM)  LTM – a relatively permanent type of memory that store huge amounts of info for a long time.  LTM is complex and divided into Explicit Memory and Implicit Memory. Function —organizes and stores information Capacity -unlimited Duration — permanent

LONG-TERM MEMORY  Explicit Memory – with conscious recall. (Hippocampus) The act of consciously or intentionally retrieving past experiences. Semantic memory – facts and knowledge. Episodic memory – personally experienced events.  Implicit Memory – without conscious recall. The influence of past experiences on later behavior and performance even though you are not trying to recollect them and are not aware that you are remembering them.  Procedural memory – Motor and cognitive skills  Priming – enhanced identification of objects or words.

M EMORY : B RAIN S TRUCTURES Explicit Memory – hippocampus, frontal lobes, Implicit Memory – amygdala, temporal lobes, cerebellum

R ETRIEVAL : THE MEMORY PROCESS THAT OCCURS WHEN INFORMATION THAT WAS RETAINED IN MEMORY COMES OUT OF STORAGE. Types of Tasks o Recall – requires you to retrieve previously learned info, as on essay tests. o Recognition – required you to identify (recognize) learned info, as on multiple choice exams. Encoding Specificity – information present at encoding effective as retrieval cue – context-dependent memory

 Autobiographical Memories –personal recollections  life time periods  general events  event-specific information  Emotional Memories -vivid  flashbulb memories  traumatic events  repressed memories: motivated forgetting  first forgotten and later recovered  Freudian defense mechanism RETRIEVAL: SPECIAL CASES

SCHEMAS  A preexisting mental concept or framework that helps people to organize and interpret information.  Schemas from prior encounters with the environment influence the way individuals encode, make inferences about, and retrieve information.

MEMORY RETRIEVAL - THE MEMORY PROCESS THAT OCCURS WHEN INFORMATION THAT WAS RETAINED IN MEMORY COMES OUT OF STORAGE.  Eyewitness Testimony Distortion Bias Inaccuracy

FORGETTING: MEMORY FAILURE  Decay Theory  passage of time  forgetting  does not explain all instances of forgetting  Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon  effortful retrieval of known information  can retrieve some but not all information

 Prospective Memory  remembering to do something in the future  content: remembering what to do  timing: remembering when to do it  absentmindedness  Amnesia  anterograde amnesia  inability to store new information and events  retrograde amnesia  inability to retrieve past information and events FORGETTING: MEMORY FAILURE

INTERFERENCE Proactive – remembering information about doing something in the future; includes memory for intentions. Something learned earlier disrupts the recall of what was learned later Interfering material learned before target material is. “I can’t take in any more new information” Retroactive – remembering information from the past. Material learned later disrupts the retrieval of information learned earlier. Interfering material learned after target material is. “Too much has happened since I studied it” Interference theory – we forget not because memories are lost from storage but because other information gets in the way of what we want to remember

RETRIEVAL FAILURE - EACH PENNY HAS A DIFFERENT DESIGN. ONLY ONE IS CORRECT. YOU HAVE SEEN THE CORRECT DESIGN MANY TIMES, AND PROBABLY HAVE EVEN CAREFULLY EXAMINED A PENNY ONCE. ALMOST NO ONE CAN RECALL WHICH PENNY IS CORRECT. THIS IS AN EXAMPLE OF RETRIEVAL FAILURE.

STUDY TIPS - ENCODING  Give Undivided Attention  Process Deeply  Make Associations  Use Imagery  Use Chunking  Encode Early and Often

ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE  A form of dementia  A progressive, irreversible brain disorder  Characterized by gradual deterioration  Memory  Reasoning  Language  Personal functioning  Incapable of coherent thought Research has shown that individuals who are educated and remain mentally engaged in complex tasks tend to cope better An active mental life leads to the accumulation of a “cognitive store” - an emergency stash of mental capacity that allows individuals to avoid the negative effects of harm to the brain.

MEMORY IMPROVEMENT  Rehearse (elaboration)  Self-references – relate material to your own experience. (effective elaboration)  Visual (mental) imagery  Organization – organize meaningfully and well organized  Mnemonics – use strategies to improve and strengthen memory.  Overlearning – repetition and review for self application  Massed practice – cramming a lot of information to try and “memorize” it may result in interference and confusion.  Spaced practice – interact with information over time with breaks or rest in between to allow processing and absorption.