A Topical Approach to Lifespan Development John W. Santrock

Chapter 1: Introduction The Lifespan Perspective The Lifespan Perspective History History Characteristics Characteristics Nature of Development Nature of Development Theories of Development Theories of Development Context of Development Context of Development Research in Development Research in Development

What is Development? a pattern of movement and change a pattern of movement and change It includes growth, transition, and decline. It includes growth, transition, and decline.

Why would you want to know about development? To anticipateTo avoid To anticipateTo avoid To planTo understand To planTo understand To copeTo help To copeTo help

Where did this information come from? Research and study in many fields of endeavor including psychology, sociology, anthropology, education, and medicine. Research and study in many fields of endeavor including psychology, sociology, anthropology, education, and medicine.

What have been the prevailing views of children (human nature) throughout history? Preformationism Preformationism Original Sin Original Sin Tabula Rasa Tabula Rasa Innate Goodness Innate Goodness

Historical View Preformationism 6 th 15 th Centuries 6 th 15 th Centuries Children are basically small adults without unique needs and characteristics. Children are basically small adults without unique needs and characteristics. Little or no need for special treatment Little or no need for special treatment

Historical View - Original Sin 16 th Century (Puritan) 16 th Century (Puritan) Children are born sinful and more apt to grow up to do evil than good. Children are born sinful and more apt to grow up to do evil than good. Parents must discipline children to ensure morality and ultimate salvation. Parents must discipline children to ensure morality and ultimate salvation.

Historical View - Tabula Rasa 17 th Century, philosopher John Locke (behaviorist) 17 th Century, philosopher John Locke (behaviorist) Children are born “blank slates” and parents can train them in any direction they wish (with little resistance). Children are born “blank slates” and parents can train them in any direction they wish (with little resistance).

Historical View – Innate Goodness 18 th Century, philosopher Jean Jacque Rousseau (humanist) 18 th Century, philosopher Jean Jacque Rousseau (humanist) Children are “noble savages” who are born with an innate sense of morality. Children are “noble savages” who are born with an innate sense of morality. Parents should not try to mold them at all. Parents should not try to mold them at all.

Life Expectancy - the number of years a person can expect to live when born in a certain place in a certain year. - the number of years a person can expect to live when born in a certain place in a certain year. US, years US, years US, 2005, 77 years (30 year increase) US, 2005, 77 years (30 year increase) Lifespan – the maximum number of years a person could live; 120 years Lifespan – the maximum number of years a person could live; 120 years

What are the characteristics of the lifespan perspective? Multidimensional Multidimensional Biological Biological Cognitive Cognitive socioemotional socioemotional Multidirectional Multidirectional Growth and decline Growth and decline Plastic Plastic Potential for change Potential for change

What are the influences of the context of development? Normative age-graded Normative age-graded e.g., puberty, graduation, retirement e.g., puberty, graduation, retirement Normative history-graded Normative history-graded e.g., war, famine, earthquakes, terrorism e.g., war, famine, earthquakes, terrorism Non-normative life events Non-normative life events Individual experiences Individual experiences

How do we apply the restuls of research on lifespan development? Parenting advice Parenting advice Educational programs Educational programs Primarily on social policy. Primarily on social policy.

Does the government have/spend adequate social welfare resources? 15% of US children (almost 50% of ethnic minority children) will be raised in poverty including increased risk for stress from violence, crowding, poor housing, family turmoil, etc. 15% of US children (almost 50% of ethnic minority children) will be raised in poverty including increased risk for stress from violence, crowding, poor housing, family turmoil, etc.

Does the government have/spend adequate social welfare resources? 40-50% of US children can expect to spend at least 4-5 years in a single-parent home % of US children can expect to spend at least 4-5 years in a single-parent home. Drug-use and AIDS are still problems Drug-use and AIDS are still problems Older adults need prescription drugs. Older adults need prescription drugs.

Social Policy Marian Edelman (Children‘s Defense Fund, 2004) Marian Edelman (Children‘s Defense Fund, 2004) Parenting and nurturing the next generation of children is our society‘s most important function and we need to take it more seriously than we have in the past. Parenting and nurturing the next generation of children is our society‘s most important function and we need to take it more seriously than we have in the past.

What is generational inequality? It is society being unfair to its younger members by giving more of its resources to older people. It is society being unfair to its younger members by giving more of its resources to older people. How well off are older people? How well off are older people? Who would look after them if the government did not? Who would look after them if the government did not?

What are the three dimensions of development? Biological - physical, genetic, brain development, motor skills, aging & decline Biological - physical, genetic, brain development, motor skills, aging & decline Cognitive - changes in thinking, intelligence & language Cognitive - changes in thinking, intelligence & language Socioemotional - relationships, personality Socioemotional - relationships, personality

What are the periods of development? Prenatal - conception to birth Prenatal - conception to birth Infancy – birth to about 2 years Infancy – birth to about 2 years Early childhood – about ages 2-6 (preschool) Early childhood – about ages 2-6 (preschool) Middle & late childhood – about ages 6-11 Middle & late childhood – about ages 6-11 Adolescence – ages or puberty until about ages or independence Adolescence – ages or puberty until about ages or independence

What are the periods of development? Early adulthood – ages 20/25 – 40/45 Early adulthood – ages 20/25 – 40/45 Middle adulthood – ages 40/45 – 60/65 Middle adulthood – ages 40/45 – 60/65 Late adulthood – ages 60/65 on Late adulthood – ages 60/65 on Young old: Young old: Oldest old: 85+ Oldest old: 85+

To what extent are we becoming an age-irrelevant society? People‘s lives are more varied. People‘s lives are more varied. All ages are about equally happy (78%) All ages are about equally happy (78%) We have a loose “social clock.” We have a loose “social clock.”

How many ways can we conceptualize age? Chronological: years since birth Chronological: years since birth Biological: health; vital organ capacity Biological: health; vital organ capacity Psychological: adaptable; learning; flexible; good judgment Psychological: adaptable; learning; flexible; good judgment Social: roles, expectations Social: roles, expectations

What are the issues of developmental psychology? Nature vs. nurture Nature vs. nurture Stability vs. change Stability vs. change Continuity vs. discontinuity Continuity vs. discontinuity

Issue 1: Nature/nurture Nature = biological inheritance (genetics) Nature = biological inheritance (genetics) Rousseau Rousseau Nurture = all experience Nurture = all experience Locke Locke Is that all there is? Is that all there is? Are they separable? Are they separable? What is epigenetic theory? What is epigenetic theory? Interaction of nature and nurture Interaction of nature and nurture

Issue 2: Stability/change When characteristics are biologically inherited or the result of early experiences, can they be changed? When characteristics are biologically inherited or the result of early experiences, can they be changed? Are the effects of early and late experiences equal, or are early ones more important (or later ones)? Are the effects of early and late experiences equal, or are early ones more important (or later ones)?

Issue 3: Continuity/discontinuity Did the change happen suddenly or gradually (first step; first word)? Did the change happen suddenly or gradually (first step; first word)? Is there a marker event? Is there a marker event? Does the old resemble the new (butterfly)? Does the old resemble the new (butterfly)?

Five Theories (Perspectives) of Development Psychoanalytic (Freud) Psychoanalytic (Freud) Cognitive Cognitive Behavioral and Social Cognitive Behavioral and Social Cognitive Ethological Ethological Ecological Ecological

Psychoanalytic Theory Unconscious mind Unconscious mind Symbolic meaning of behavior Symbolic meaning of behavior Early experience Early experience Importance of emotion Importance of emotion

Psychoanalytic Theory Freudian personality Freudian personality Id: instincts; energy; unconscious; no contact with reality; amoral; irrational Id: instincts; energy; unconscious; no contact with reality; amoral; irrational Ego: reasoning Ego: reasoning Superego: conscience; moral branch Superego: conscience; moral branch Repression: banishment into unconscious Repression: banishment into unconscious Phallic stage: ages 3-6; Oedipus complex; identification with same-sex parent; development of superego Phallic stage: ages 3-6; Oedipus complex; identification with same-sex parent; development of superego

Psychoanalytic Theory: Erik Erikson ( ) Eight psychosocial stages in the lifespan Eight psychosocial stages in the lifespan Trust v. mistrust Trust v. mistrust Autonomy v. shame/doubt Autonomy v. shame/doubt Initiative v. guilt Initiative v. guilt Industry v. inferiority Industry v. inferiority Identity v. confusion Identity v. confusion Intimacy v. isolation Intimacy v. isolation Generativity v. stagnation Generativity v. stagnation Integrity v. despair Integrity v. despair

Psychoanalytic Theory: Criticisms Not scientific or testable Not scientific or testable Data was from memory and unreliable Data was from memory and unreliable Too much emphasis on sex Too much emphasis on sex Too much emphasis on the unconscious Too much emphasis on the unconscious Too negative Too negative Culture and gender biased Culture and gender biased

Cognitive Theories (1960s) Emphasize thinking, reasoning, language Emphasize thinking, reasoning, language Jean Piaget: Swiss ( ) Jean Piaget: Swiss ( ) Children actively construct understanding Children actively construct understanding Four stages Four stages Lev Vygotsky: Russian Lev Vygotsky: Russian Knowledge is constructed through interaction with other people Knowledge is constructed through interaction with other people Information Processing Information Processing Analogy between human brain & computer Analogy between human brain & computer

Behavioral & Social-cognitive Theories Behavioral theories Behavioral theories Ivan Pavlov: classical conditioning Ivan Pavlov: classical conditioning Pair a neutral stimulus with one (UCS) that automatically produces a response (UCR) Pair a neutral stimulus with one (UCS) that automatically produces a response (UCR) John B. Watson: conditioned emotional responses (Little Albert) John B. Watson: conditioned emotional responses (Little Albert) B. F. Skinner: operant conditioning B. F. Skinner: operant conditioning Behavior followed by a reward is more likely to occur again; punished behavior is less likely Behavior followed by a reward is more likely to occur again; punished behavior is less likely

Behavioral & Social-cognitive Theories Social-Cognitive Theories Social-Cognitive Theories Albert Bandura: observational learning (Includes anger, cruelty, kindness). Albert Bandura: observational learning (Includes anger, cruelty, kindness). Reciprocal determinism: behavior, the environment, and the person (and their cognitions) mutually influence each other Reciprocal determinism: behavior, the environment, and the person (and their cognitions) mutually influence each other

Ethological Theory Based on study of animal behavior Based on study of animal behavior Considers the influence of biology/evolution Considers the influence of biology/evolution Considers critical or sensitive periods Considers critical or sensitive periods Konrad Lorenz: imprinting-rapid, innate learning Konrad Lorenz: imprinting-rapid, innate learning John Bowlby: attachment John Bowlby: attachment

Ecological Theory Urie Bronfenbrenner Urie Bronfenbrenner Emphasizes environmental concepts Emphasizes environmental concepts Microsystem: daily life Microsystem: daily life Mesosystem: relates microsystems Mesosystem: relates microsystems Exosystem: influences from other social systems Exosystem: influences from other social systems Macrosystem: culture Macrosystem: culture Chronosystemn: (time) personal/social history Chronosystemn: (time) personal/social history

What are the methods of collecting data? Observation Observation Laboratory Laboratory Naturalistic Naturalistic People act/react differently when they know they are being watched. People act/react differently when they know they are being watched. Survey/interview: asking questions Survey/interview: asking questions Unstructured/open-ended Unstructured/open-ended Structured, quantitative Structured, quantitative Ask the right questions of the right people. Ask the right questions of the right people.

What are the methods of collecting data? Standardized tests: comparison of performance with others Standardized tests: comparison of performance with others Remember tests are cultural and they do not predict behavior in non-test situations. Remember tests are cultural and they do not predict behavior in non-test situations. Physiological measures: hormones in blood; neurological measures (PET; fMRI) Physiological measures: hormones in blood; neurological measures (PET; fMRI) Remember there is never a one-to-one relationship between a physiological measure and a psychological state. Remember there is never a one-to-one relationship between a physiological measure and a psychological state.

What are the methods of collecting data? Case study: intensive, in-depth study of a single case as with a physician-patient or therapist-patient relationship. Good for gaining insight. Case study: intensive, in-depth study of a single case as with a physician-patient or therapist-patient relationship. Good for gaining insight. Life-history records: education, work, medical, family Life-history records: education, work, medical, family

Research Designs Descriptive – includes more detail Descriptive – includes more detail Correlational – numbers show strength & direction of relationship Correlational – numbers show strength & direction of relationship Used for prediction Used for prediction Ranges from to (+ is direct; - is inverse) Ranges from to (+ is direct; - is inverse) Remember: correlation does not equal causation Remember: correlation does not equal causation

Experimental Research Is evidence of cause-effect because of control and manipulation. Is evidence of cause-effect because of control and manipulation. One factor (independent variable) is manipulated. One factor (independent variable) is manipulated. A behavior (dependent variable) is measured. A behavior (dependent variable) is measured. All other factors are held constant. All other factors are held constant. A change in the dependent variable could only be caused by manipulation of the independent variable. A change in the dependent variable could only be caused by manipulation of the independent variable.

Experimental Research Manipulation means there is different treatment in different groups. Manipulation means there is different treatment in different groups. The experimental group experiences the manipulation. The experimental group experiences the manipulation. Control groups do not; they are for comparison. Control groups do not; they are for comparison. Random assignment of participants to groups ensures that groups start out the same. Random assignment of participants to groups ensures that groups start out the same.

Research Across the Life-span Cross-sectional: people of different ages, same year Cross-sectional: people of different ages, same year Cohort effects: due not to common age, but common experience Cohort effects: due not to common age, but common experience Longitudinal: same people; different years Longitudinal: same people; different years Expensive, time-consuming, dropouts Expensive, time-consuming, dropouts Sequential: a combination of cross- sectional and longitudinal Sequential: a combination of cross- sectional and longitudinal

Research Journals Publish scholarly & academic information Publish scholarly & academic information Articles chosen by a board of experts for importance, methodology, writing Articles chosen by a board of experts for importance, methodology, writing Written for other professionals, use technical terms, great detail Written for other professionals, use technical terms, great detail Format: abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion, references Format: abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion, references May have biases in interpretation of data. May have biases in interpretation of data.

Ethics in Use of Human Subjects There should be a Human Subjects Review Board. There should be a Human Subjects Review Board. Informed consent/parental consent Informed consent/parental consent Confidentiality Confidentiality Debriefing Debriefing Deception Deception