PowerPoint Presentation prepared by Terri Petkau, Mohawk College.

PowerPoint Presentation prepared by Terri Petkau, Mohawk College

CHAPTER ONE Introducing Sociology Robert J. Brym

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 1-3 INTRODUCTION Will examine: The sociological perspective Durkheim’s theory of suicide and suicide in Canada today Sociological imagination Origins of sociology, and Main sociological theories*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 1-4 SOCIOLOGY Sociology:  Systematic study of human behaviour in social context Emerged during Industrial Revolution:  Era of massive social transformation accompanied by new social problems*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 1-5 THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE Sociological perspective examines association between social events and social relations  Classic 19 th century example  Durkheim’s analysis of suicide:  Examined association between suicide rates and social relations  Demonstrated that suicide rates are strongly influenced by social forces*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 1-7 DURKHEIM’S FINDINGS Some categories of people (men, Christians, the unmarried, seniors) had higher rates of suicide than others (women, Jews, the married, the young and middle-aged)  Married adults half as likely as unmarried adults to commit suicide  Jews less likely to commit suicide than Christians*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 1-8 Social solidarity: Degree to which group member share beliefs and values, and intensity and frequency of interaction Demonstrated variation in social solidarity in different groups:  Those weakly integrated into social groups are more likely to commit suicide  As level of social solidarity increases, suicide rate declines  But beyond a certain point, rate begins to rise again* DURKHEIM’S THEORY OF SUICIDE

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 1-9 Three types of suicide: 1.Anomic suicide: Occurs in low social solidarity settings, where norms governing behaviour are vaguely defined 2.Egoistic suicide: Results from lack of integration of individual into society because of weak social ties to others 3.Altruistic suicide: Occurs in high social solidarity contexts, where norms tightly govern behaviour* DURKHEIM’S TYPOLOGY OF SUICIDE

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 1-11 Social forces exist as distinct level of reality that is: External to individuals Constrains individual behaviour* IMPLICATIONS OF DURKHEIM’S ANALYSIS OF SUICIDE

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 1-12 SUICIDE IN CANADA TODAY Substantial increase in suicide since 1960s among those between ages of 15 and 64  Yet youth suicide negligible in Durkheim’s study Factors in increase today in youth suicide:  Level of social solidarity lower today for young people than decades ago  Young people less rooted in society, and less likely to share moral standards*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 1-14 FROM PERSONAL TROUBLES TO SOCIAL STRUCTURES Social structures: Relatively stable patterns of social relations Are social structures at micro-, macro-, and global levels … *

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 1-15 SOCIAL STRUCTURES i.Microstructures: Overarching patterns of intimate social relations formed during face-to-face interaction (e.g., families, friendships, work associations) ii.Macrostructures: Overarching patterns of social relations outside one ’ s circle of intimates and acquaintances (e.g., class relations, bureaucratic organizations, power systems) iii.Global structures: Patterns of social relations outside and above national level (e.g., United Nations, European Union, NAFTA region)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 1-16 THE SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION C. Wright Mills’ concept of sociological imagination:  Ability to see connection between personal troubles and social structures Reflected departure from views of ancient and medieval times that considered:  Society as controlled by God and nature  Reliance on speculation rather than evidence*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 1-17 ORIGINS OF THE SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION Scientific Revolution (circa 1550): Encouraged evidence-based conclusions about society Democratic Revolution (circa 1750): Suggested people were responsible for creating society; thus, human intervention capable of solving social problems Industrial Revolution (circa 1780): Created host of social problems; attracted attention of social thinkers*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 1-18 ORIGINS OF SOCIOLOGY Comte (1838): Coined term “sociology”  Sought to understand social world using scientific method of research  But also had vision of ideal society Tension between analysis and ideal reflected in works of important early figures in sociology: Marx, Durkheim, and Weber*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 1-19 ORIGINS OF SOCIOLOGY Values: Ideas about right and wrong, good and bad  Inform what issues are considered important  Help sociologists formulate and favour certain theories Theories: Tentative explanations of some aspect of social life that state how and why certain facts are related Research: Process of systematically observing reality in order to “test” theories*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 1-21 1. FUNCTIONALISM Stresses human behaviour is governed by relatively stable patterns of interaction Focuses on how social structures either maintain or undermine social stability Argues social structures are based mainly on shared values Suggests re-establishing equilibrium as a solution to most social problems*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 1-22 2. CONFLICT THEORY Focuses on large, macro-level structures (e.g., relations between or among classes) Shows how major patterns of inequality produce social stability in some circumstances and social change in others Stresses how members of privileged groups seek to maintain advantages, while subordinate groups struggle to increase theirs Typically recommends eliminating privilege as means of reducing social conflict and increasing sum of human welfare*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 1-23 3. SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM Focuses on face-to-face interaction in micro-level social settings Emphasizes need for understanding subjective meanings that people attach to social circumstances Argues that people help create their social circumstances, not merely react to them Increases understanding and tolerance of difference by validating unpopular and unofficial viewpoints*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 1-24 4. FEMINIST THEORY Focuses on various aspects of patriarchy: System of male domination in society Suggests male domination and female subordination are determined by structures of power and social convention rather than biology Examines operation of patriarchy in both micro and macro social settings Recommends eliminating patterns of gender inequality*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 1-26 TODAY’S SOCIAL SETTING Today’s social setting is characterized by:  Postindustrialism: Technology-driven shift from manufacturing to service industries and attendant consequences of that shift for all of society  Globalization: Process by which formerly separate economies, states, and cultures become tied together; also characterized by people becoming increasingly aware of their growing interdependence*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 1-27 SOCIOLOGICAL ISSUES IN THE POSTINDUSTRIAL ERA 1.Autonomy versus constraint: Individuals are more free to construct identities but are limited by new technologies (e.g., surveillance technologies) 2.Prosperity versus inequality: Are new economic, political, and educational opportunities, yet persistence of economic and political inequality 3.Diversity versus uniformity: Increased tolerance of diversity amidst strong push for conformity in many spheres of life**

CHAPTER TWO Culture Robert J. Brym

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 2-34 CULTURE AND SOCIETY Culture: Sum of socially transmitted practices, languages, symbols, beliefs, values, ideologies and material objects that people create to deal with real-life problems  Enables people to adapt to, and thrive in, their environments Society: People interacting socially and sharing culture, usually in a defined geographical area*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 2-35 ORIGINS OF CULTURE Three tools in human cultural survival kit: 1.Abstraction: Capacity to create ideas or ways of thinking that allow us to classify experience and generalize from it  Ideas or ways of thinking find expression in symbols: Anything that carries a particular meaning, including the components of language, mathematical notions, and signs…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 2-36 ORIGINS OF CULTURE (Three tools in human cultural survival kit) 2.Co-operation: Human capacity to create complex social life by establishing norms, which are standards of behaviour or generally accepted ways of doing things 3.Production: Human capacity to make and use tools, and thereby improve our ability to take what we want from nature  Tools and techniques known as material culture*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 2-38 CULTURE AND SOCIAL CONTROL To ensure conformity to cultural guidelines, society develops sanctions Are two types of sanctions:  Positive sanctions: Rewards for following cultural guidelines (e.g., praise, money)  Negative sanctions: Punishments for violating cultural guidelines (e.g., avoidance, arrest)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 2-39 UNDERSTANDING CULTURE Sociological understanding of culture can be impaired by:  Invisibility of own culture: Taking own culture for granted  Ethnocentrism: Judging other cultures exclusively by standards of own culture*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 2-42 1. CULTURE AS FREEDOM i.Cultural diversification and globalization: As societies become more complex, cultures become more heterogeneous (e.g., through immigration) Is characterized by increase in freedom to choose elements of cultural consumption and identification*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 2-44 1. CULTURE AS FREEDOM The Rights Revolution:  Process by which socially excluded groups (e.g., women, aboriginal peoples, homosexuals) have struggled to win equal rights in law and practice Issues raised by the rights revolution:  Obligation to compensate for past injustices  How to maintain acceptable balance between right to be equal and right to be different*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 2-45 1. CULTURE AS FREEDOM Globalization: Characterized by   Expansion of international trade and investment  International travel and communication  Prevalence of mass media  Routine contact between people of diverse cultures  Migration by members of different racial and ethnic groups*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 2-46 GLOBALIZATION: EFFECTS Contributes to cultural fragmentation Destroys political, economic and cultural isolation; i.e., McLuhan’s notion of “global village” Individuals less obliged to accept native culture and freer to combine elements from wide variety of historical periods and geographical settings*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 2-47 1. CULTURE AS FREEDOM ii.Postmodernism: Three main features  a.Eclectic mixing of elements from different times and places b.Erosion of authority c.Decline of consensus around core values  Reflected in fate of “Big Historical Projects”: For past 200 years, was global consensus about inevitability of progress arising from human ingenuity, but negative side of progress recognized in postmodern era*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 2-51 POSTMODERNISM: CHALLENGES How to make binding decisions How to govern How to teach children and adolescents difference between right and wrong How to transmit literary tastes and artistic standards from one generation to the next*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 2-52 POSTMODERNISM: BENEFITS Empowers ordinary people and makes them more responsible for own fate Renders individuals more tolerant and appreciative of ethnic, racial, religious, and sexual groups Frees individuals to choose rather than have imposed on them religious, ethnic, and other identities Encourages healthy skepticism about political and scientific claims for creating a better world*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 2-54 2. CULTURE AS CONSTRAINT i.Rationalization:  Weber’s term for systematic application of standardized means to predetermined ends  Has given rise to widespread acceptance of regimentation associated with the Werkglocken (work clock)  Has also led to “McDonaldization” of the world:  Organizational principles of fast-food restaurant have come to dominate life and have resulted in Weber’s concept of the “iron cage”*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 2-55 2. CULTURE AS CONSTRAINT ii.Consumerism: Tendency to define ourselves in terms of goods we purchase (e.g., we are what we wear, drive, etc.) Consumers motivated to make purchases because of bombardment of adverstising in form of:  North America’s “shop-till-you-drop” lifestyle  Pressure on parents by child-directed advertising*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 2-56 2. CULTURE AS CONSTRAINT Consumerism also consumes dissent Countercultures: Subversive subcultures that oppose dominant values and seek to replace them (e.g., hippies of 1960s and environmentalists today)  Yet rarely pose serious threat to society because are tamed by consumerism  Rebels now enticed to engage in commercialization (e.g., highly profitable heavy metal and hip-hop music industries)**

CHAPTER THREE Socialization William Shaffir Michael Rosenberg

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 3-59 INTRODUCTION Will examine: Process of socialization Theoretical explanations for development of the self Gender socialization Socialization through the life course Agents of socialization Resocialization*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 3-60 SOCIALIZATION Socialization: Active process whereby human beings   Learn how to become members of society  Develop a self or sense of individual identity, and  Learn to participate in social relationships with others*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 3-61 SOCIALIZATION: TWO TYPES 1.Primary socialization: Occurs in childhood Lays foundation that influences self- concept and involvement in social life 2.Secondary socialization: Learning that occurs after people have undergone primary socialization Continues throughout life*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 3-62 NATURE VERSUS NURTURE DEBATE Longstanding debate over whether human behaviour is outcome of biological inheritance (nature/instincts) or the social environment (nurture) Sociology emphasizes importance of society and socialization (nurture) in human behaviour*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 3-63 EVIDENCE FOR NURTURE Studies of children raised in isolation: Demonstrate importance of social interaction in socialization process Study on infants in orphanage and infants in prison nursery: Demonstrates importance of social contact in development of human infants Socialization essential to physical wellbeing, social competence of infants, and development of self*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 3-64 THE SELF AND SOCIALIZATION Socialization involves not only learning about others but developing sense of self The self:  Is our sense of individual identity  Allows us to understand ourselves  Allows us to differentiate ourselves from others Newborn unable to differentiate itself from mother  Differentiation occurs gradually through interaction*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 3-65 COOLEY’S LOOKING-GLASS SELF Gestures and reactions of others are a mirror or “looking glass” in which we see ourselves:  Attention is paid to others’ gestures and reactions to us  We imagine how our appearance, manners, and presentation of self are regarded by others  Our evaluation of how we believe ourselves judged by others influences how we view our self (e.g., with pride, embarrassment, etc.) Our first images of self come from significant others (e.g., parents) and the primary group (e.g., the family)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 3-66 GEORGE HERBERT MEAD Theorized relationship between mind, self, and society Key to process: Ability to communicate symbolically through gestures, objects, or sounds Through interaction with others, children learn to take the role of the other and internalize values, attitudes, and beliefs of society to which they belong Process is central to developing sense of self…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 3-67 MEAD’S STAGES IN TAKING THE ROLE OF THE OTHER 1.Imitative stage: Inability to take role of the other; much of behaviour is imitative make-believe 2.Play stage: Ability to adopt roles of significant others (e.g., parents, storybook hero); play shifts from imitative to imaginative 3.Game stage: Ability to develop generalized impression of behaviour people expect and sense of one’s place in the group  Internalize the generalized other: Conception of how people in general will respond in situation*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 3-68 MEAD: THE “ME” AND THE “I” The “me”: Objective element of the self  We first imagine ourselves from perspective of others  Makes us aware of ourselves as social objects The “I”: Subjective or active part of the self  Allows us to react to and assess ourselves  Leads us to engage in internal conversation Our experience involves continuous conversation between the “me” and the “I”*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 3-69 WILLIS’S APPLICATION AND EXTENSION OF MEAD’S THEORY Recognizes that socialization implies both conformity and creativity  Individual must deal with constraints and take advantage of opportunities Argues teens and young adults still engaged in developing identity and sense of self:  Example: E-mail user names invented by students  Attempts at controlling how others respond to user*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 3-70 GENDER SOCIALIZATION Sex: Biological identity; i.e., male or female Gender: Attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours we associate with masculinity and femininity Gender socialization: Learning cultural expectations of masculinity and femininity Children initially socialized into gender roles by significant others (e.g., parents) Gender roles: Reinforced by mass media and other institutions*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 3-71 SOCIALIZATION THROUGH THE LIFE COURSE Adolescent socialization  Adolescence: Modern stage of life between childhood and adulthood  Product of industrialization and mass education Requires balance be found between autonomy and conformity, and freedom and constraint  Need for managing tension between parents’ expectations of maturity while simultaneously being treated as a child Also involves anticipatory socialization: Aspirants to particular social roles imagine what it would be like to enact those roles*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 3-72 ADULT SOCIALIZATION Adult socialization: Process by which adults take on new statuses and acquire new and different social identities Can occur in new situations at work (e.g., new job) or in private life (e.g., new married/divorced status) Involves more freedom of choice than adolescent socialization (e.g., whether to marry, have children; which career to pursue, etc.)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 3-73 SOCIALIZATION AMONG SENIORS Challenges of later years of life:  Decreased physical ability and prospect of death in midst of Western society’s denial of death  Negative media stereotypes of aging and seniors  Lowered prestige through loss of useful roles and valued statuses (e.g., worker and spouse) Challenges create status and identity problems  Exacerbated by society’s lack of preparation and guidance for new roles (e.g., retirement, widowhood)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 3-74 AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION Agents of socialization: Individuals, groups, and institutions that impart range of information needed for individuals to interact effectively and participate in society Include families, schools, peer groups, mass media, religious institutions, etc. Provide both formal and informal “training”*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 3-75 AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION: FAMILIES Through close interaction with parents and small number of others, child:  Learns to think and speak  Internalizes norms, beliefs, and values  Learns gender roles  Develops capacity for intimate and personal relationships  Begins to develop a self image…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 3-76 AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION: FAMILIES Socialization affected by:  Social class of parents  Parenting style  Preparedness of parents for parenting role  Psychological health of parents (e.g., neglect, abuse, or abandonment of child)  Family type (e.g., single parent family, blended family)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 3-78 AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION: SCHOOLS Teach children indirectly to be less emotionally dependent Adjust children to their social order Build character through formal curriculum and “hidden curriculum”: Informal teaching that helps ensure students’ integration into society Reinforce gender roles*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 3-79 AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION: PEER GROUPS Peer group: Individuals usually of same age who enjoy approximately equal status In childhood, formed largely by accident of association  Later in life, tend to choose peer groups based on certain criteria Only agent of socialization in childhood and youth not controlled mainly by adults…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 3-80 AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION: PEER GROUPS Allow children and young people:  Opportunities to engage in experiences not provided in family, including examining feelings, beliefs and ideas not acceptable to family  Opportunities for self-direction and self- expression Can strongly shape individual’s aspirations and behaviours through stringent demands for conformity*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 3-81 AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION: THE MASS MEDIA Create, manage, and control impressions of what is deemed important and real May inadvertently perpetuate stereotypes May teach individuals to become obedient consumers Exert powerful socializing influence but effects difficult to measure  Most effects impersonal and transmitted in one direction  Research on effects of violence in mass media debated*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 3-82 OTHER SOCIALIZING AGENTS Religious institutions: May have effect on moral outlook Athletic teams: May teach young people about cooperation, competition, following rules, and establishing friendships Youth groups: May be instrumental in teaching about group rules and expectations about conformity and deviance  Conflict both among and within agencies of socialization inevitable in complex societies*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 3-83 IDENTITY AND SOCIAL CHANGE Social circumstances of life powerfully influence identity Today more autonomy but less sense of purpose and fewer enduring social ties Difficulty in establishing stable and coherent identity Voluntary and sometimes forcible shifting in identity (e.g. cult member, life- threatening illness, imprisonment)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 3-84 RESOCIALIZATION Resocialization: Deliberate attempt to correct or instill particular values and behaviours in individual or group Occurs in total institutions:  Settings in which people are isolated from rest of society for set period  Where all aspects of person’s life are regulated under one authority  Examples: The military, convents, prisons, boarding schools, psychiatric hospitals*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 3-85 GOFFMAN: RESOCIALIZATION Total institution resocializes inmate into new identity by:  Completely controlling and manipulating environment  Stripping away established identity  Subjecting inmate to mortification rituals (e.g., humiliations, degradations, physical pain)  Reconstituting inmate’s sense of self by imposing new identity and new way of life Process likened to symbolic ritual death and rebirth**

CHAPTER FOUR Gender and Sexuality Rhonda L. Lenton

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 4-88 INTRODUCTION Will examine: Difference between sex and gender Gender identity and gender roles Sexuality, sexual attitudes and behaviour, and sexual scripts Theoretical explanations for origins of gender differences Gender socialization Male violence against women Sexual pluralism*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 4-89 DEFINING MALE AND FEMALE: SEX AND GENDER Sex: Biological differences between males and females Gender: Attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours we associate with masculinity and femininity*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 4-91 GENDER IDENTITY AND GENDER ROLE Gender identity: One’s identification with, or sense of belonging to, a particular sex - biologically, psychologically, and socially Gender role: Widely shared expectations about how males or females are supposed to behave  Little change over past 40 years in expectations  Significant pressure to conform*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 4-92 SEXUALITY Sexuality: Activities intended to lead to erotic arousal and produce genital response Sexual behaviour guided by set of “social scripts” that tell us:  Who we should find attractive  When and where it is appropriate to be aroused  What is permissible  How to behave sexually Scripts are linked to gender roles*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 4-93 COMPULSORY HETEROSEXUALITY Compulsive heterosexuality: Assumption individuals should desire only members of the “ opposite ” sex Places strong sanctions on: i.Homosexuals: Those who desire members of same sex ii.The transgendered: Those who wish to alter gender by changing appearance or resorting to medical intervention, and iii.Transsexuals: Those who identify with and want to live fully as members of the “opposite” sex*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 4-94 SEXUAL ATTTITUDES AND BEHAVIOUR Traditional sexual scripts teach us to:  Meet a member of the opposite sex  Fall in love  Get married, and then  Have intercourse with our spouse Yet scripts largely ignored today in Canada:  Premarital sex widely accepted by Canadian public  Majority of Canadians approved unmarried cohabitation*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 4-99 CHANGING SEXUAL SCRIPTS Increasing tolerance of homosexuality, same-sex marriage, and civil union Attitudes more conservative towards extramarital affairs than those about homosexuality  Reflect trend towards wanting and having fewer sexual partners (re: concern about HIV/AIDS) Change from relatively liberal sexual attitudes of 1960s and 1970s Evidence of wide variation in attitudes towards sex and sexual conduct over time and place*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 4-101 DOES SEX DETERMINE DESTINY: ORIGINS OF GENDER DIFFERENCES Two main perspectives: 1.Essentialism: Views as natural and universal male-female differences in sexual scripts, domestic and workplace division of labour, mate selection, sexual aggression, jealousy, promiscuity, and fidelity 2.Social constructionism: Views gender and sexuality as products of social structure and culture*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 4-103 1.ESSENTIALISM: i. BRAIN STUDIES Male-female differences in brain structures account for male-female differences in behaviour and achievement:  Males: Supposedly best at jobs requiring logic & visual-spatial manipulation (e.g., reason why more male scientists, mechanics, pilots)  Females: Supposedly best at jobs requiring empathy, intuition, and language skills (e.g., reason why more women stay home to raise children, and why more female teachers, nurses)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 4-104 1.ESSENTIALISM: ii. SOCIOBIOLOGY Assumption: All human beings instinctually want to ensure their genes are passed on to future generations Different reproductive status of men and women has led them to develop different adaptive strategies Over time, masculine and feminine behaviours became genetically encoded, including:  Men’s desire for casual sex, men treating women’s bodies as property, men beating or killing women who incite male sexual jealousy, and women being greedy for money*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 4-105 1.ESSENTIALISM: iii. FREUD Sexuality is main human instinct that:  Motivates human behaviour  Accounts for development of distinct masculine and feminine gender roles Male develops strong masculine personality out of identifying with father and repressing sexual desires for mother Female develops immature and dependent personality out of identifying with mother and experiencing “penis envy,” which promotes sense of inferiority*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 4-106 CRITIQUE OF ESSENTIALISM i.Ignores historical and cultural variability of gender and sexuality ii.Ignores reality of rapid decline in gender differences in many societies iii.Appeals to research evidence that often is deeply flawed iv.Tends to generalize from the average, ignoring variations within gender groups v.Exaggerates degree to which gender differences are unchangeable vi.Ignores role of power*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 4-108 2. SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONISM Following sociohistorical changes led to development of gender inequality: i.Long-distance war and conquest: Catered to men’s strengths and greatly enhanced male power and authority ii.Plow agriculture: Required strong adults (i.e., males) remain in fields all day for much of year; males assumed land ownership iii.Separation of public and private spheres: Industrialization moved men into public sphere; women remained in domestic or private sphere*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 4-110 CONSTRUCTING GENDER THROUGH SOCIALIZATION i.Primary socialization: Boys and girls treated differently by parents from moment of birth Girls more likely to be characterized as delicate, beautiful; boys as strong, alert, well- coordinated Boys encouraged to engage in boisterous and competitive play; girls in co-operative play Gender patterns reinforced by design of child’s room, clothing, and toys*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 4-111 CONSTRUCTING GENDER THROUGH SOCIALIZATION ii.Secondary socialization: Girls and boys channelled into roles culturally defined as appropriately feminine and masculine respectively Gendered behaviour reinforced by teachers who tend to:  Assume boys better in science and mathematics, and girls better in languages  Praise boys more than girls and offer more help Also reinforced by peer-group interactions*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 4-112 CONSTRUCTING GENDER THROUGH SOCIALIZATION iii.The mass media: Representation of gender creates and reinforces gender stereotypes Stereotypes evident in:  Children books and movies (e.g., Snow White and Prince Charming)  Magazines and romance novels (e.g., Harlequin)  Advertisements, TV shows, movies, and music*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 4-113 GENDER SOCIALIZATION AND SEXUALITY Little formal socialization regarding sexuality  Result: Tendency to express sexuality in framework defined by early, informal gender socialization Persistence of passive sexual scripts for women:  Rooted in girls learning sexuality something to be feared (e.g., unwanted pregnancy, sexual assault) Men still more likely than women to adhere to sexual scripts emphasizing fun, conquest, and orgasm rather than love, tenderness, and emotionality*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 4-114 BODY IMAGE AND EATING DISORDERS Social construction of gender involves defining standards of physical attractiveness for women and men (standards reinforced by media):  Women more likely than men to be judged on basis of appearance  Men more likely than women to be assessed in terms of status and power Obsession with weight and “cult of thinness” for women:  Resultant eating disorders, dissatisfaction with body, and disinterest in sexual activity*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 4-115 MALE VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN Socially constructed gender and sexual scripts affect frequency of male violence against women Sexual assault:  Perpetrators typically male  Victims (typically female) selected because of availability and powerlessness*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 4-116 MALE VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN Sexual harassment  Are two types: i.Quid pro quo sexual harassment: When sexual threats or bribery made condition of employment decision ii.Hostile environment sexual harassment: Sexual jokes, comments, touching that interferes with work or creates unfriendly work setting Relatively powerless women most likely to be sexually harassed (e.g., women who are young, unmarried, employed in nonprofessional jobs)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 4-119 LOOKING AHEAD: TOWARD A NEW SEXUAL ETHIC Growing attitude towards sexual pluralism:  Sexual acts assessed only by their meaning for participants  Encourages people to see sexuality positively Does not negate need for regulating sexual behaviour  Continues to oppose abuse of power in sexual relations & recognizes need for state to punish and help prevent sexual crimes Examination and redefinition of sexuality is important step in process of achieving gender equality**

CHAPTER FIVE The Mass Media Josh Greenberg Graham Knight

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-122 INTRODUCTION Will examine: The mass media and interactive media Theoretical approaches in media studies Political economy of the media Role of television in the economy, culture, and identity News and ideology Research on media effects Forms of computer-mediated communication*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-124 THE MASS MEDIA AND INTERACTIVE MEDIA Mass media: Technologically-mediated means of communication in which flow of messages is largely unidirectional from a single point of transmission to a large, anonymous, dispersed audience of receivers (e.g., television) Interactive media: Communications flow back and forth; people exchange roles with one another in the transmission and reception of communication (e.g., social networking websites)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-125 THEORETICAL APPROACHES IN MEDIA STUDIES 1.The technological perspective: Derives primarily from the work of (i) Innis and (ii) McLuhan i.Innis  Made distinction between two types of media: a)Time-based media b)Space-based media  Each type fosters different social perceptions, interactions, and institutional arrangements…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-126 1. TECHNOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE: i. INNIS a)Time-based media: Modes of communication that endure over time but are not very mobile across space (e.g. writing on stone or clay tablets) Are conducive to strong sense of tradition and custom Promote religious forms of power and belief*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-127 1. TECHNOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE: i. INNIS b)Space-based media: Modes of communication that can cover greater areas of space but are much less durable over time (e.g., writing on paper; sounds transmitted over airwaves) Lead to territorial expansion, empire building, and more secular forms of power and culture Different forms of power create different types of social division and conflict:  Struggle against elite control by those excluded from power has resulted in shift from time- to space-based media*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-128 1. TECHNOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE: ii. MCLUHAN Argued influence of mass media on society is mediated by the way the media change people’s sense perceptions and cognitive processes  Example  Invention of printing, which… i.Undermined oral communication by establishing more visual culture where words are linked in a linear way ii.Promoted interpreting the world in linear, cause-and-effect way…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-129 1. TECHNOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE: ii. MCLUHAN Invention of printing, which… (continued) iii.Moved communication away from face-to-face interaction, making information more abstract iv.Fostered individualism, privacy, rationality, and social differentiation (through abstracting effect) v.Encouraged view of world as composed of separate objects vi.Enabled standardizing of national languages*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-130 1. TECHNOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE: ii. MCLUHAN Effects of innovation of television: i.Allows for instantaneous communication ii.Helps viewers achieve better sensory balance  Unlike print, does not rely solely on one sense iii.Is more socially inclusive than print iv.Ushered in new era of global democracy in “global village”*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-131 1. TECHNOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE: ii. MCLUHAN Theory largely dismissed as technological determinism:  Social change is determined by nature and function of technology, not by conscious human action*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-132 2. THE CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE Holds that (i) institutions (such as the news media) and (ii) processes (such as socialization and social control) cannot be understood from viewpoint of society as a whole  Rather, need to be understood from that of unequal and conflicting groups and classes…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-133 2. THE CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE Capitalist class and other powerful groups reinforce their position and maintain status quo through: i.Control over dominant ideology (interests, perspectives, viewpoints, and understandings of dominant class and other powerful groups) ii.Establishment of hegemony (dominant class using media to naturalize and universalize dominant ideology and absorb challenge of alternative and oppositional viewpoints)…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-134 2. CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE: FIRST VARIANT i.Control over dominant ideology Initially developed by Horkheimer and Adorno:  Viewed media as part of broader “culture industry” that functions to create “mass deception” about exploitative and oppressive character of capitalist society “Propaganda model” of Herman and Chomsky:  Suggested that media “filters” information to reduce or eliminate radical or subversive views…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-135 HERMAN AND CHOMSKY: FILTERS Five main filters used by media: a)Orientation to profit-making b)Dependency on advertising for revenue and profit c)Reliance on powerful institutions and individuals as sources of information d)Negative reaction (“flak”) if media deviate from promoting elite interests and values e)Adherence to anti-communism as overarching belief system (anti-communism since replaced by “war on terrorism;” e.g., Iraq war)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-136 2. CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE: SECOND VARIANT ii.Establishment of hegemony Dominant groups control both resistance and struggle (which arise from inequality) by accommodating and incorporating range of different viewpoints, including:  Oppositional viewpoints: Represent experiences of subordinated groups against those of the powerful  Alternative viewpoints: Blend of elements of dominant and oppositional viewpoints*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-137 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF THE MEDIA Focuses on:  Ownership and control of economic resources, and  Effect of technology and economic power on cultural values, social structure, and political decision making Notes increasing concentration of ownership and control of media (e.g., multimedia chains, such as Disney)  Enhanced by development of digital technologies*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-139 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF THE MEDIA: MUTIMEDIA CHAINS Multimedia chains practice both:  Horizontal consolidation: Sharing of facilities and resources between different plants and outlets  Vertical integration: Controlling of resources and assets at different stages of production  Example: Ownership of major league sports team along with stations and cable channels on which games televised*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-141 NEWSPAPERS: CONCENTRATION, MONOPOLY, AND ADVERTISING The critical perspective argues homogenization of news coverage and decline in diversity in news topics and viewpoints are result of: Multimedia chain ownership (e.g., Bell Globemedia) Advertising dependency Local newspaper monopolies  But research evidence supporting link is inconclusive*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-142 TELEVISION: ECONOMY, CULTURE, AND IDENTITY Greatest impact on content and role of television:  Commercialization and advertising Canadian television largely dominated by American television industry  Domination derided by critical theorists as cultural imperialism  When one society’s media exert overwhelming and unilateral influence over another society’s culture*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-145 TELEVISION: ECONOMY, CULTURE, AND IDENTITY Critics of cultural nationalist position argue that although dramatic television is important, Canadians also develop sense of collective national identity through their overwhelming preferences for domestic news and public affairs programming  Example: Despite consumption of American programming, Canadians overwhelmingly prefer to get their news and public affairs information from the CBC and CTV rather than Fox or CBS*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-146 TELEVISION: ECONOMY, CULTURE, AND IDENTITY Concern that Canadian culture is under siege by American-style programming also ignores fact that many high-profile faces in American mass media are originally Canadian Might also question supposed Americanization of Canadian identity through the mass media by noting Canada is quickly becoming a “postnational” society*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-147 REPRESENTATION AND IDEOLOGY: THE MEANING OF THE MESSAGE Media communicate messages on different levels: the pleasurable, the meaningful, the entertaining, and the informative Communication entails process of representation:  Use of language, visual images, and other symbolic tools to portray something in a coherent meaningful way that others can understand Sociologists use term, framing, to denote selective, organized nature of representation that has ideological effects*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-148 NEWS AND IDEOLOGY News media: One of principle sources of information about social reality Conservative and critical writers disagree about which of following two positions apply: i.News media as supporting “left-liberal” bias that runs counter to views and interests of society’s mainstream (endorsed by conservative perspective) ii.News media as representative of dominant ideology given concentrated ownership and hierarchy of access (endorsed by critical perspective)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-149 DEFINING THE NEWS News values: Criteria used by news media to define and represent events and issues Criteria include: i.Immediacy (can write stories in present tense) ii.Personalization (can reduce causes and explanations to level of individual motives and psychology) iii.Extraordinariness (events and issues entail conflict, confrontation, deviance, or disorder)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-150 NEWS AND DOMINANT IDEOLOGY While news dwells on the negative, it still reinforces dominant ideology by:  Reinforcing dominant definitions of what is normal and desirable, and  Focusing on actions of appropriate social control authorities*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-151 GATHERING THE NEWS In preparing new stories, the mass media rely on: i.Official news sources: Representatives of dominant institutions used by media to define basic meaning of issue or event (e.g., politicians, police officers, professionals, experts) ii.Ordinary news sources: Sources without a group affiliation (e.g., victims or eye witnesses) iii.Alternative news sources: Representatives of social movements and social advocacy/activism groups, whose viewpoints often diverge from those of dominant social groups*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-153 MEDIA EFFECTS AND AUDIENCES Are two approaches to study of media effects: 1.Study of effects of media violence: Concerns about effects of media violence overshadow concerns about its causes 2.Audience interpretation: Examines the way viewers make sense of what they see and hear on television*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-154 MEDIA VIOLENCE Two main approaches in current media research: 1.Cultivation analysis: Examines effect of media violence on attitudes  Gerbner: Argues long-term exposure gives rise to “‘mean world’ syndrome” 2.Focus on effects of television on behaviour  Predominant view: Media violence has some real-life effects*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-155 MEDIA VIOLENCE Evidence inconclusive on alleged causal relationship between media violence and violent behaviour  Laboratory experiments purporting to demonstrate relationship are criticized on grounds of artificiality Alternate explanation: Social learning theory, that suggests media violence provides scripts that teach children how and when to act aggressively  However, relationship between TV and real violence is bidirectional  Watching violent TV fosters aggressiveness, but those who prefer to watch violent TV already have more aggressive tendencies*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-156 AUDIENCE RESEARCH: INTERPRETATION AND MEDIA USE Television has been primary focus of audience research because since WWII it has played central role in definition of private sphere in modern society (i.e., family, domesticity, gender relations, consumption, and suburban living) Research tradition argues people are not passive recipients of message:  Rather, people often filter, interpret, and even challenge messages they see and hear based on their social context, experiences, and beliefs*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-157 AUDIENCE RESEARCH: INTERPRETATION AND MEDIA USE TV has spread to other social settings, such as bars, malls, classrooms, and sports stadiums TV has also become more dispersed within the household allowing more autonomy and privacy in viewing habits Personalized watching has also been encouraged by proliferation of specialty channels and services catering to particular tastes and interests…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-158 AUDIENCE RESEARCH: INTERPRETATION AND MEDIA USE New interactive technologies have become more accessible, creating a more complex communications environment that mediates the role and tempers the impact that any single medium can have at home, work, or school These changes have shifted the focus of audience research toward the ways television fits into the broader media culture*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-159 THE INTERNET: COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION Forms of computer-mediated communication (CMC):  E-mail, instant messaging (IM), blogs and chat rooms, video-sharing sites (e.g., YouTube) and social networking applications (e.g., Facebook and MySpace) Constantly-changing nature of Internet (both technologically and socially) and research on its structure, use, and effects have produced divergent findings and interpretations that compound its uncertainty*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-160 THE INTERNET: COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION Macrolevel research has focused not only on inequalities in terms of Internet access, usage, and scope, but also on the ways in which new media technologies challenge our understanding of what CMC means Microlevel research has been concerned with the reciprocal effects between offline and online interaction*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-161 THE DIGITAL DIVIDE: CMC AND SOCIAL INEQUALITY Digital divide: Term used to explain how access to and use of CMC reproduce structural inequities Has been rapid Internet growth since early 1990s, but still considerable inequality in access and use Social class, occupation, and education tend to be strong predictors of usage Access related to race and ethnicity more in USA than in Canada*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-162 THE INTERNET: DIFFERENCES OF USE E-mail still most commonly used form of CMC among Canadians although overall use becoming more varied (e.g., for educational, financial, and consumption purposes, in particular) Like access, use varies by social status and identity Some research finds women more likely than men to have accounts on social networking sites Differences in usage indicate different desires and needs of audience segments and their need for culturally-specific content*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-164 WEB 2.0: THE NEW DIGITAL DIVIDE? Web 1.0 involved uploading and downloading text and images that users simply consumed Web 2.0 encourages users to be digital collaborators, building web pages and blogs; creating content by uploading and mixing videos on YouTube; and editing, deleting, and adding to encyclopedic information on Wikipedia  Critics suggest Web 2.0 is way for media corporations to exploit users by replacing skilled labour (such as web design) with the “free” labour of audiences*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-165 VIRTUAL COMMUNITY: THE INTERNET’S IMPACT Rapid growth of the Internet has prompted concern about its supposedly negative effects, including obesity, inactive leisure time, poor diet, declining reading rates, and addiction to its use But the Internet also can be source of valuable information that can inform and promote active and healthy lifestyles to at-risk populations New media also opens possibilities for civic engagement and activism as well as identity expression*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-166 SURVEILLANCE AND PRIVACY 2.0 With implementation of social networking sites, online interaction is becoming increasingly less anonymous, raising concerns about privacy and surveillance  Sites are being used as spaces of digital voyeurism for individuals to spy on each other as well as havens for predators to lurk on unsuspecting youth  However, some cite lack of empirical evidence for youth abduction Despite concerns, police and other criminal investigations have used social networking sites to track down locations of offenders*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 5-167 THE BLOGOSPHERE: SOCIAL ACTIVISM 2.0 The blogosphere, a virtual community of blogs and bloggers, is another Web 2.0 technology that has social implications offline Blogosphere resembles a physical community inasmuch as it facilitates shared values, a sense of belonging, and a common purpose Prominence of the blogosphere in media coverage illustrates power and potential of the Internet to invigorate democratic debate  But should remain mindful that commodification may eventually temper current enthusiasm**

CHAPTER SIX Social Stratification Harvey Krahn

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-170 INTRODUCTION Will examine:  Types of stratification systems  Explanations of social stratification  Occupations, social class, and inequality in Canada  Occupational mobility in Canada  Distribution of wealth in Canada  Material inequality and the poor in Canada*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-171 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION Social stratification:  Refers to persistent patterns of social inequality in a society  Is perpetuated by the way wealth, power, and prestige are distributed and passed on from one generation to the next  Exists in all societies*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-172 FEATURES OF SOCIAL HIERARCHIES Status: Rank or position in a social hierarchy Statuses may be: i.Ascribed (assigned at birth), or ii.Achieved (earned by performance)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-173 TYPES OF STRATIFICATION SYSTEMS 1.Open stratification system:  Stratification system in which merit rather than inheritance (ascribed characteristics) determines social rank  Allows for social change Is reflected in a meritocracy:  Positions are achieved, not ascribed  Characterized by equal opportunity and high social mobility (movement up or down a social hierarchy)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-174 TYPES OF STRATIFICATION SYSTEMS 2.Closed stratification system  Stratification system in which inheritance rather than merit determines social rank  Little social change possible Reflected in a caste system:  Positions are ascribed, not achieved  Characterized by little social mobility Although Canada is in principal a meritocracy, ascribed statuses still play an important role*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-175 CLASS AND CLASS STRUCTURE Class: Position in an economic hierarchy occupied by individuals or families with similar access to, or control over, material resources (e.g., working class, professional class) Class structure: Relatively permanent economic hierarchy comprising different social classes Socioeconomic status: Person’s general status within an economic hierarchy, based on income, education, and occupation*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-176 EXPLANATIONS OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION Several theories or explanations of social stratification Accounts offered by Marx, Weber, Davis and Moore, Lenski, Wright, and Parkin  Understandings are mediated by time and place in which social theories developed*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-177 MARX ON STRATIFICATION Writings focus particularly on 19 th century European world rapidly being changed by industrial capitalism  Industrial Revolution: Tremendous increase in level of economic production and degree of inequality Key concepts in Marx’s theory:  Mode of production: Overall system of economic activity (e.g., slavery, capitalism)…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-178 MARX ON STRATIFICATION Mode of production comprises: i.Means of production: Technology, capital investments, raw materials used in production ii.Social relations of production: Relationships between main classes involved in production*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-179 MARX: SOCIAL CLASSES Two major classes within industrial capitalism: i.The bourgeoisie: Owners of the means of production ii.The proletariat: Workers who exchange their labour for a wages Secondary class:  The petite bourgeoisie: Independent owners/ producers (e.g., farmers) and small business owners*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-180 MARX: EXPLOITATION Exploitation of wage labourers was result of surplus value:  When proceeds from sale of goods produced by wage-labourers far exceed cost of wages, raw materials, etc.  Surplus value then turned into profits for owners (i.e., capitalists)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-181 MARX: CLASS CONFLICT Class conflict: Conflict between major classes within a mode of production  Is driving force behind social change  Eventually leads to evolution of new mode of production Envisioned capitalism being replaced with socialist mode of production (i.e., no private property with its attendant exploitation and inequality)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-182 MARX: CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS AND REVOLUTION Theorized workers would develop class- consciousness:  Recognition by members of a class of their shared interest in opposition to members of another class  Would lead to revolutionary upheaval and eventually classes society based on collective ownership of means of production (e.g., communism)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-183 RESPONSES TO MARX Criticized for predictions not finding support in: i.Later capitalist societies, which were characterized by absence of widespread class conflict, growth of the middle class, and relative decline in material inequality in 20 th century  Example: Western Europe and North America ii.Later socialist systems of government, which were characterized by persistent inequality, and new hierarchy that controls political and bureaucratic apparatus  Example: Russia*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-184 WEBER ON STRATIFICATION Focused on determinants of power: Ability to impose one’s wishes on others Structural basis of power: i.Class (power derived from position in economic hierarchy) ii.Status (power derived from culturally and socially defined position that person occupies in a group) iii.Party (political power) Power depends on one’s location in these three structures*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-185 WEBER: SOCIAL CLASS AND LIFE CHANCES Gave primary emphasis in social stratification to economic underpinnings Claimed there was larger variety of class positions than found in Marx’s theory Emphasized life chances:  Opportunities (or lack thereof) for higher standard of living and a better quality of life that are available to members of a given class*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-186 DAVIS AND MOORE: FUNCTIONAL THEORY OF STRATIFICATION Inequality exists in all societies  Must be necessary All societies have occupational roles that need to be filled, with some roles requiring more training than others (e.g., the more important roles) Greater rewards (e.g., money, prestige) necessary to encourage people to undertake extended training and fill these important roles Social inequality is therefore necessary and inevitable*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-187 CRITICISMS OF DAVIS AND MOORE Theory does not account for the following:  Huge income and wealth inequalities  Gender differences in income even if same type of work undertaken  Inherited wealth  Arbitrariness of denoting most important roles (e.g., movie stars, nurses, daycare workers) Criticized as justification for large inequalities*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-188 LENSKI: TECHNOLOGY AND STRATIFICATION SYSTEMS Society’s technological base largely determines degree of inequality within it Owners of means of production need to rely on well-educated managerial and technical workers  Reliance gives rise to workers’ demands for greater portion of the growing wealth in industrial society  Employers give in to demands because they cannot produce wealth without these workers Envisioned movement towards more equal distribution of wealth*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-189 WRIGHT’S NEO-MARXIST THEORY OF CLASS Recognized that as industrial capitalism matured, the middle class had grown and become more diverse Emphasized “contradictory class locations”:  An occupational grouping with divided loyalties Also identified three classes of owners and nine classes of wage labourers*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-191 WRIGHT’S NEO-MARXIST THEORY OF CLASS Argued exploitation of one class by another can occur through:  Control of property or means of production (as Marx insisted)  Ownership of skill or credential assets, and  Control of high positions within organizations*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-192 PARKIN’S NEO- WEBERIAN APPROACH Developed Weber’s concept of social closure:  Methods used by more powerful groups to maintain their unequal access to status and resources, and to exclude others from such access Two types of closure strategies: i.Exclusion: Organized effort of the privileged, more powerful groups to maintain their advantaged position (e.g., lawyers, members of trade unions) ii.Usurpation: Effort of excluded groups to gain advantages and power at expense of more powerful groups (e.g., women)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-193 OCCUPATIONS, SOCIAL CLASS, AND INEQUALITY IN CANADA Most prominent occupational shift over 20 th century was decline in agricultural occupations Also decline (albeit less) in other natural resource- based occupations (e.g., forestry, fishing, mining) Increase in white-collar occupations (e.g., managerial, professional, clerical [office jobs], sales, and service categories)  Have come to greatly outnumber blue-collar occupations (e.g., manufacturing, construction, transportation, and resource-based operations)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-194 OCCUPATIONS, SOCIAL CLASS, AND INEQUALITY IN CANADA Increase in proportion of occupations requiring higher education Rise in average incomes (until early 1980s) Occupational shifts suggest:  Greater class diversity, not polarization of classes  Rising standard of living for Canadian workers, not increasing poverty and exploitation*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-196 OCCUPATIONS, SOCIAL CLASS, AND INEQUALITY IN CANADA Gender-based labour market stratification has continued:  Since middle of last century, proportion of women in labour force has risen  But mostly in low-paid, low status “pink-collar” sector (clerical, sales, and service occupations) Large class of paid workers differentiated by:  Decision-making authority  Income status  Occupational power*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-197 OCCUPATIONS, SOCIAL CLASS, AND INEQUALITY IN CANADA Dramatic decrease in proportion of self-employed Canadians over past century Increase in unemployment Part-time and temporary work more common Income growth has stopped Increase in income and wealth inequality*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-198 OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY AND STATUS ATTAINMENT Occupational mobility: Moving up and down occupational and income ladders Intragenerational occupational mobility: Mobility within an individual’s lifetime Intergenerational occupational mobility: Process of reaching occupation location higher or lower than location held by parents Occupational status attainment: Main determinant of status of a person’s current job is status of first job (dependent on educational attainment)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-199 OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY IN CANADA Globally, one of highest rates of upward mobility More upward than downward intergenerational mobility Relatively open stratification system (especially during 1970s and 1980s) Yet intergenerational transfer of advantage persists*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-200 THE DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH IN CANADA Limited number of people continue to own or control very large portion of wealth Concentration of ownership and wealth inequality continue to increase:  Wealthiest 10% of families holds almost half of all wealth in Canada  CEO’s multimillion dollar compensation packages versus 11% of Canadian families with no net worth*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-201 INCOME DISTRIBUTION: HIGH- PAYING AND LOW-PAYING OCCUPATIONS Upper middle class: Those with well-paid managerial and professional occupations (e.g., lawyers, dentists) Lower working class: Retail workers and those employed in service occupations (e.g., childcare and home support services) Gender differences hidden in occupational earning patterns:  Females earn less than males in all occupations but earnings ratio varies considerably by occupation*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-202 AVERAGE EARNINGS IN SIX OCCUPATIONS MOST COMMONLY HELD BY 15- TO 24-YEAR- OLDS WITH A UNIVERSITY DEGREE/ DIPLOMA AND WORKING FULL-TIME, FULL YEAR BY SEX, CANADA, 2006

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-203 INCOME INEQUALITY Since mid-20 th century, little change in distribution of total income across households But increase in income inequality  Decline in share of total income received by the three middle quintiles Immigrants significantly overrepresented among Canada’s working poor despite higher education and training Since 1990, average family income increased by 1%, versus 40% increase in average family debt*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-204 THE POOR: DEFINING AND MEASURING POVERTY Various ways of defining poverty:  Absolute poverty: Those with so little income that survival is difficult  Relative poverty: Those with significantly less income than others in their society Canada’s low-income cut-off (LICO) or poverty line:  Those who spend more than 55% of gross income on basic necessities*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-205 WHO ARE THE POOR? Proportion of poor Canadians in 2001: 14.4% Only minority unemployed or out of labour force Working poor (those employed in low wage jobs) make up large proportion of the poor Aboriginal Canadians among poorest citizens Poverty rate for single-parent families and seniors (aged 65+) living alone: Both 42% in 2001 Poverty not a static status: Sizable number move in and out of poverty each year*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-207 SOCIAL ASSISTANCE FOR THE POOR Misconception that level of social assistance provides disincentive to work Ontario social assistance provides:  Income of only 34% of poverty line for single employable adults  Income of only 56% of poverty line for single parents  Income of only 59% of poverty line for those with disabilities*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-209 MATERIAL INEQUALITY IN CANADA: A SUMMARY Level of material inequality is relatively low compared with many other countries and with a century ago But have witnessed increases in:  Corporate concentration  Wealth inequality  Income inequality  Number of working poor  Unemployment rates (long-term trend)  Part-time and temporary employment  Inequality in earnings (re: polarization in hours worked)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-210 MATERIAL INEQUALITY IN CANADA: A SUMMARY Reduction in employment opportunities More competitive economic environment (due to globalization) Routine layoffs and downsizing Replacement of full-time permanent jobs with part- time and temporary positions Weakened labour movement Decrease in state efforts to reduce material inequalities*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-211 CONSEQUENCES OF MATERIAL INEQUALITY Position in class structure has effect on belief systems, behaviours, voting patterns, lifestyles, and, most importantly, life chances (e.g., health, longevity, educational attainment, criminality) Increasing inequality may mean more social unrest among the poor  But more opposition today from better-organized, better-funded middle class*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-212 RESPONDING TO INEQUALITY Two views: 1.Inequality is inevitable and need not be addressed (tends to be espoused by the well-off) 2.Inequality is unjust and needs to be addressed (tends to be espoused by the poor): i.Socialist response: Overthrow capitalism ii.Reformist response: Government redistribution of wealth to the poor (e.g., through pensions, minimum-wage legislation, unemployment insurance, etc.)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 6-213 RESPONDING TO INEQUALITY: CANADA’S RESPONSE? Canada’s “liberal” welfare policies espouse faith in power of free market to produce wealth and improve condition of poor (despite little evidence of success)  Priority today given to deficit-reducing initiatives rather than reduction of material inequality Responding to inequality effectively will require willingness on part of many to accept less so that others can have more**

CHAPTER SEVEN Gender Inequality: Economic and Political Aspects Monica Boyd

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 7-216 INTRODUCTION Will examine: Explanations for gender inequality Gender inequality in the home, the labour force, and politics Recommendations for reducing gender inequality*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 7-217 GENDER INEQUALITY Social roles: Behaviours expected of people occupying particular social positions In 20 th century, enormous change in attitudes, expectations, behaviours, and social roles of men and women in Canada But persistence of gender inequalities:  Hierarchical asymmetries between women and men in terms of distribution of power, material wellbeing, and prestige*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 7-218 GENDER STEREOTYPES Gender inequality is reinforced by gender stereotypes:  Set of prejudicial biologically-based generalizations about men and women in terms of personality traits and behaviour  Persistence of polarized gender stereotypes is supported by research Yet, gender-related identities and behaviours largely socially constructed and continually altered through social interaction*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 7-219 GENDER STEREOTYPES Socially constructed nature of gender identities means gender identities:  Are not stable or fixed  Need not be congruent with sex assigned at birth  Are not polar opposites (despite notion of “opposite sex”), but can operate on a continuum of masculinity and femininity*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 7-220 DIMENSIONS OF INEQUALITY: POWER, MATERIAL WELLBEING, AND PRESTIGE 1.Power: Capacity to impose your will on others, regardless of any resistance 2.Material wellbeing: Involves access to economic resources required to pay for necessities of life and other possessions and advantages 3.Prestige: Average evaluation of occupational activities and positions arranged in a hierarchy*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 7-221 EXPLAINING GENDER INEQUALITY Feminism: Body of knowledge about causes and nature of women’s subordination to men in society, and various agendas - often involving political action - for removing that subordination Feminist theories: 1.Liberal feminism 2.Marxist feminism 3.Socialist feminism…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 7-222 1. LIBERAL FEMINIST THEORIES Gender inequalities caused and perpetuated by gender stereotyping and gendered division of labour Achieve gender equality through:  Removing gender stereotyping and discrimination in workplace and education, and  Changing laws to allow for equal opportunities in labour force and politics*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 7-223 2. MARXIST FEMINIST THEORIES Women’s unpaid domestic work maintains and reproduces labour force Capitalists benefit by women (wives/mothers):  Ensuring workers (males) ready to work each day  Raising children to become future labourers  Acting as own reserve army of labour Achieve gender equality through socialism*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 7-224 3. SOCIALIST FEMINIST THEORIES Agree with Marxist feminist theories but include additional component:  Recognize classes constitute only one set of social relations that oppress women Second set of oppressive social relations:  Patriarchy  System of male domination over women Decrease gender inequality through:  State-subsidies for maternal benefits and child care  Equal pay for equal work*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 7-225 EXERCISING POWER Male power and control over women characterize all social relations, routine behaviours, and commonly accepted practices Workplace sexual harassment: Result of general belief that men are superior to women and may impose their will upon them  Is example of power as a system of dominance and exploitation  Is system because capacity of men and incapacity of women to control and influence has become routine*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 7-226 SEPARATE SPHERES Separation of public sphere for men and private sphere for women Consequences of separation for women:  Association of domestic labour as women’s work  Devaluation of unpaid domestic labour  Tendency to view nurturing and care-giving as biologically-determined traits  Financial dependence on men  Reduced access to power, prestige, and material wellbeing*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 7-227 FEMALE LABOUR-FORCE PARTICIPATION Since beginning of 20 th century, substantial increase in female labour force participation, including increase in rates of employed married women and women with young children Factors in increase: i.Increased demand for service workers ii.Decrease in number of children born; and iii.Increased financial pressures on families*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 7-228 DOMESTIC LABOUR Despite rise in female labour force participation, women still more likely than men to do unpaid work involving home maintenance and child-care While men have begun to do housework and child-care, women still spend more hours than men on domestic activities Consequences of “double day” for women:  Less time available for recreational activities  More likely to report feeling stressed*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 7-229 PERCENTAGE SPENDING 15 HOURS OR MORE A WEEK ON UNPAID HOUSEWORK AND ON CHILD CARE, WOMEN AND MEN IN THE LABOUR FORCE WITH AT LEAST ONE CHILD UNDER AGE 15 IN THE HOUSEHOLD, CANADA, 2006

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 7-230 OCCUPATIONAL SEGREGATION AND SEX TYPING Women in paid labour force typically do jobs that involve care-giving, nurturing, and household-type management Has given rise to: i.Sex typing (or sex labelling) of occupations:  Designating an occupation as appropriate for one sex ii.Sex segregation of occupations:  Concentration of women and men in different occupations*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 7-233 OCCUPATIONAL SEGREGATION AND SEX-TYPING: IMPLICATIONS “Women’s” occupations often lower than “men’s” occupations in terms of authority, responsibility, earnings, skill requirements, and mobility opportunities Inequalities indicate male advantage in labour force Women typically supervise fewer employees than men and are less likely to hold top positions Women confronted with glass ceiling: Level in an organization above which women and minority members seldom found*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 7-234 GENDER AND SKILL Sex typing and general devaluation of work done by women influence commonsense evaluation of what constitutes “skilled” work Women less likely to have high-skilled jobs given gender bias in socially constructed definition of skill Skill undervaluation of female sex-typed occupations disadvantages women through:  Association of skill with wage level  Potential to undermine pay equity policies which determine worth of job partly in terms of skill*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 7-235 NONSTANDARD WORK Nonstandard work (“precarious employment”) more common for women than for men Includes part-time work, part-year work, limited-term contract employment, multiple job-holding, etc. Involves less job security, lower pay, and fewer fringe benefits (e.g., pension plans)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 7-236 EARNINGS Women typically earn less than men Explanations for pay gap: i.Gender differences in characteristics that influence pay rates (e.g., education, effort) ii.Gender differences in type of work done iii.Discrimination (both gender and statistical discrimination) iv.General devaluation of “women’s work”*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 7-238 GENDER, BIRTHPLACE, AND COLOUR Is an intersection of gender inequality with inequalities stemming from birthplace and colour Women not born in Canada or those who are members of visible minority face additional hurdles:  More likely to be employed in low-skill occupations  Typically earn less than Canadian-born counterparts (except for Aboriginal women)  Overall, earn less per week than women who are not members of visible minority groups*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 7-239 WOMEN’S GROUPS: ORGANIZING FOR CHANGE Women historically excluded from politics: Any activity that mobilizes people to make their views known, press for change, and achieve objectives Women’s movement: Social movement aimed at improving conditions of women Lobbying efforts of women’s movement since World War I include:  Voting rights  Gender equality in the workplace  Fairer division of assets in divorce cases  Programs to combat violence against women*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 7-240 WOMEN’S GROUPS: ORGANIZING FOR CHANGE Lobbying efforts limited by: i.Reliance of women’s groups on state funding (gives rise to pressure to compromise their role as critics of government) ii.Consensus building approach (is a hindrance in a political culture that requires quick responses) iii.Heterogeneity of women’s groups (is obstacle to coalition-building)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 7-241 WOMEN’S GROUPS: ORGANIZING FOR CHANGE Efforts further limited by change in interaction between women’s groups and governments, which has been caused by:  Electoral success of more conservative parties  Federal government’s calls for economic restraint and increased provincial/territorial and private- sector responsibility  Dissatisfaction within women’s advocacy groups on agendas (criticized for reflecting concerns of white, largely middle class women)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 7-242 GENDER IN POLITICS Explanations for women’s underrepresentation in politics: 1.Sex-role stereotypes (women more family- oriented) 2.“Male” political culture (hostile to women’s participation) 3.“Gatekeeping” function of political parties (tend to place women in contests with poor chance of winning) 4.Insufficient resources (necessary for winning nominations and mount publicity campaigns) 5.Clash between political and family life*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 7-244 GENDER IN POLITICS AND REPRESENTATION FOR WOMEN Representation by women not same as representation for women Most Canadian female legislators are white, middle-class, publicly heterosexual, and well- educated:  Concern that these women do not and cannot speak for Aboriginal women, women of colour, elderly women, poor women, lesbians, and other marginalized groups*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 7-245 PUBLIC POLICY AND GENDER INEQUALITY Currently no government policy targets gender inequality in politics But are two areas of policy development that bear on gender inequality in the labour force: i.Employment equity, including affirmative action (create opportunities for historically disadvantaged groups in labour force) ii.Pay equity (as expressed in principal of equal pay for work of equal value To date, limited coverage and impact of policies*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 7-246 CORRECTING THE BALANCE: WOMEN IN POLITICS Could increase female representation in politics by:  Having political parties display good intentions  Reducing economic barriers to winning nominations and running for office  Recognizing family needs and responsibilities, and the social roles of women…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 7-247 CORRECTING THE BALANCE: WOMEN IN POLITICS (Could increase female representation in politics by…)  Weakening or eliminating the gate-keeping tradition  Engaging in affirmative action measures, and  Centralizing party decision-making to give elites more control over women’s representation**

CHAPTER EIGHT Race and Ethnic Relations Vic Satzewich

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-250 INTRODUCTION Will examine: Ethnicity and race as social constructions Prejudice and discrimination Individual and institutional racism Theories of race and ethnic relations Aboriginal peoples and explanations for conditions Nationalism and identity in Quebec Factors that shape Canadian immigration Inequality in Canada based on race and ethnicity*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-251 THE FIELD DEFINED Sociology of race and ethnic relations: Concerns primarily study of how power and resources are unequally distributed among racial and ethnic groups Questions raised in field include:  What are conditions under which ethnic and racial groups come into contact?  Which ethnic and racial groups hold power in society? How do they exercise power?  What are social consequences of unequal distribution of power and resources?*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-252 ETHNICITY: THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF DIFFERENCE Misguided assumption that race and ethnicity are ascribed statuses rather than achieved statuses (i.e., statuses acquired by virtue of social definition) Ethnicity may be defined in two ways: i.Objectively (by group language, culture, customs, national origin, and ancestry) ii.Subjectively (by self-identification of group members)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-254 PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION Prejudice  Unfavourable, generalized and rigid belief applied to all members of a group Discrimination  Practices that deny members of particular groups equal access to societal rewards*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-255 RACE: THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF DIFFERENCE Race: Socially constructed label used to describe certain kinds of physical differences between people Genetic differences between racial groups are arbitrary, small, and behaviourally insignificant Despite social construction, race and ethnicity are important parts of our social reality Many continue to believe in existence of race and ethnicity and organize their relationships with others based on those beliefs*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-256 RACISM Racism  Biological versions refer to belief that:  Humans are subdivided into distinct hereditary groups that are innately different in social behaviour and mental capacities, and  Can be ranked as superior or inferior  But claims for inherent superiority or inferiority discredited*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-257 THE NEW RACISM New racism  Theory of human nature that suggests it is natural for groups to form bounded communities  One group neither better nor worse than the other, but feelings of antagonism will be aroused if outsiders admitted*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-259 INSTITUTIONAL RACISM Institutional racism  Discriminatory racial practices built into the structure of politics, economic life, and education Are three forms: i.Institutional practices based on explicitly racist ideas (e.g., Chinese people excluded from certain jobs and denied right to vote until 1947)…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-260 INSTITUTIONAL RACISM ii.Institutional practices that arose from - but are no longer sustained by - racist ideas (e.g., in 1960s, black workers from Caribbean admitted to work on southern Ontario farms) iii.Institutional practices that sometimes unintentionally exclude certain groups through seemingly neutral rules, regulations, and procedures  Examples: Systemic discrimination found in racial profiling in policing, and height and weight requirements for police officers and firefighters*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-261 THEORIES OF RACE AND ETHNIC RELATIONS Four main approaches that seek to explain various forms of ethnic and racial hostility: 1.Social psychological approaches 2.Primordialism 3.Normative theories 4.Power-conflict theories*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-262 1. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACHES Focus on how prejudice and racism satisfy psychic needs of certain people Example: Frustration-aggression theory  Explains prejudice and racism as forms of hostility that arise from people frustrated in efforts to achieve goals  Racial and ethnic groups become safe targets (i.e., scapegoats) of displaced aggression  Limitation: Does not specify circumstances that lead to aggression, or why some groups rather than others are chosen as scapegoats*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-263 2. PRIMORDIALISM Suggests ethnic attachments reflect innate tendency of people to seek out and associate with their “own kind” Example: Sociobiology  Prejudice and discrimination stem from our innate tendency to be nepotistic  Ethnic prejudice and racism are ways of maintaining social boundaries  Limitation: Cannot explain intragroup conflict or intergroup harmony*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-264 3. NORMATIVE THEORIES Focus on how prejudices are transmitted through socialization and social circumstances that compel discriminatory behaviour Example: Socialization approach  Focuses on how we are taught ethnic and racial stereotypes, prejudices, and attitudes by families, peer groups, and mass media  Argue that prejudice and attitudes are learned through social interaction  Limitation: Unable to explain how prejudicial ideas, attitudes, and practices first arise*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-265 4. POWER-CONFLICT THEORIES Stress how ethnic and racial conflict derives from distribution of power in society i.Orthodox Marxism  Argues racism is ideology used by capitalists to mystify social reality and justify intense exploitation of minority and immigrant workers  Racist ideas used to create artificial divisions in working class, thereby quelling formation of class consciousness (threat to social/economic order)  Limitation: Racism is not confined to capitalist class…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-266 4. POWER-CONFLICT THEORIES 2.Split labour market theory  Racial and ethnic conflict rooted in differences in price of labour  Argues employers try to replace high-paid white workers with low –paid nonwhite workers  High-paid workers try to protect own interests by limiting capitalists’ access to cheaper nonwhite workers  Suggests individual racism, ethnic prejudice, and institutional racism emerge from intergroup conflict …*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-267 4. POWER-CONFLICT THEORIES (Split labour market theory)  Maintains prejudicial ideas and discriminatory behaviour are ways of socially marginalizing minority groups that dominant group views as threats to their position of power and privilege  Recommends looking beyond individual personalities and sociobiological processes and analyze processes of economic, social, and political competition among groups*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-268 ABORIGINAL PEOPLES Aboriginal peoples in Canada: Group comprised of Indians, Inuit, and Métis Indian (or status or registered Indians): Refers to those recognized as “Indians” according to federal government’s Indian Act Métis: Either descendants of historic Métis, or anyone of mixed European-Indian ancestry who self-defines as Métis, and whose self-definition is accepted by other Métis Inuit: Diverse group of people who have lived for centuries north of the tree line*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-269 EXPLANATIONS OF ABORIGINAL CONDITIONS Aboriginal peoples are the most socially and economically disadvantaged groups in Canada Three explanations for social and economic disadvantage: 1.The government’s view 2.The culture of poverty thesis 3.Conflict theory*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-270 ABORIGINAL PEOPLES: 1. THE GOVERNMENT’S VIEW Poverty linked to state efforts to forcibly Europeanize and Christianize Aboriginal peoples and culture:  Premised on belief that Indian culture was inferior to European culture  Government’s legislative, regulatory, and educational approach reflected view that inequality, poverty, and poor social conditions were rooted in Aboriginal cultural and racial inferiority*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-271 ABORIGINAL PEOPLES: 2. THE CULTURE OF POVERTY THESIS Poverty linked to Aboriginal culture that does not value capitalist work ethic, economic success, materialism, and achievement Argument criticized for confusing effect with cause:  Aboriginal people born into certain situations in life and adopt values and attitudes consistent with their life-chances*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-272 ABORIGINAL PEOPLES: 3. CONFLICT THEORY Internal colonial model:  Analyzes problem of inequality in terms of power imbalances and exploitation of Aboriginal peoples by white society  Argues misuse of state power (e.g. land-claim disputes) and paternalistic federal laws (e.g., Indian Act) have disempowered Aboriginal peoples by fostering social marginality and dependence Model criticized for tendency to overgeneralize about conditions of Aboriginal peoples in Canada*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-273 ABORIGINAL PEOPLES: CLASS AND GENDER DIVERSITY Aboriginal peoples not homogeneous socioeconomic group but divided by both gender and class privilege Feminist theorists note lack of gender equality is concern of many Aboriginal women Conflict theorists note political and economic implications of socioeconomic differentiation within Aboriginal communities (e.g., control of land-claim settlements by small ruling elites)  Argue for existence of two-class structure among Aboriginal peoples*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-274 QUEBEC: NATIONALISM AND IDENTITY Following 1763 conquest of New France by Britain, anglophone elite became new colonizing power of what is now Quebec  Gradually took over economic and political affairs of Quebec French Canadians in Quebec (who formed numerical majority) were more disadvantaged materially than anglophone minority*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-275 QUEBEC: NATIONALISM AND IDENTITY Mid 20 th century witnessed rise of new francophone middle class of technical workers and professionals  Facing blocked mobility due to English control of economic institutions, members pushed for expansion and modernization of Quebec state  Found expression in the “Quiet Revolution” of 1960s:  Social, political, and cultural changes that occurred in Quebec in the 1960s, in part because of the initiatives of this new middle class*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-276 QUEBEC: NATIONALISM AND IDENTITY Support for contemporary sovereignty movement comes from variety of groups who identify Québécois as a colonized and exploited people  Groups also have differing views of how best to maintain their language and culture:  Moderates want to strengthen Quebec’s position within the federal system, while radicals are for own state*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-277 WHO IS QUÉBÉCOIS? Population of Quebec is ethnically heterogeneous Nations comprised of “imaginary communities” in terms of physical and social boundaries that define group membership Symbolic boundaries of what defines Québécois are articulated differently: i.Civic nationalists  All those who now reside in Quebec ii.Ethnic nationalists  Only those who share a common history, culture, ancestry, or language (are known as pure laine – pure wool – Québécois)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-278 IMMIGRATION: STATE FORMATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT In 2001, immigrants represented 18.4% of Canada’s population (percentage greater in large cities) Migration has been feature of Canadian history for over 300 years  Immigrants contributed to formation of capitalist state  Immigrants continue to make important contributions to social reproduction of Canadian society Without new immigrants, Canada’s population will begin to decline by 2015*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-279 SIX FACTORS THAT SHAPE CANADIAN IMMIGRATION 1.Social class: Most immigrants are admitted to Canada because of Canada’s economic needs and interests 2.Ethnic and racial stereotypes: Exaggerated, oversimplified images of characteristics of certain groups  Prior to 1962, Canadian immigration policy had racialized hierarchy of desirability…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-280 SIX FACTORS THAT SHAPE CANADIAN IMMIGRATION 3.Variety of geopolitical considerations (stemming from Canada’s relationships with other countries)  Racist selection criteria removed from immigration regulations in 1960s, partly because they interfered with Canadian diplomacy 4.Humanitarianism: Immigrants and refugees accepted partly on humanitarian and compassionate grounds…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-281 SIX FACTORS THAT SHAPE CANADIAN IMMIGRATION 5.Public opinion: Difficult to determine though given no “one voice” of Canadians regarding immigration 6.Security considerations: Since Sep. 11/01, has become more important factor  Introduction of Permanent Resident Card and number of measures to increase border security  Move towards Canada and USA harmonizing immigration policies (criticized by some as move towards a “Fortress North America”)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-283 CONTEMPORARY IMMIGRATION CATEGORIES Immigrants fit one of three main categories: 1.Refugees (includes three subcategories): i.Convention refugees (those who because of fear of persecution are unable or unwilling to return to their country of origin…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-284 CONTEMPORARY IMMIGRATION CATEGORIES ( Refugees:) ii.Country of asylum class refugees (those outside country of citizenship or residence who are seriously and personally affected by civil war, armed conflict, or massive violation of human rights iii.Source country class refugees (those who meet definition of Convention refugee but are still in country of citizenship or residence)…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-285 CONTEMPORARY IMMIGRATION CATEGORIES 2.Family class immigrants: Have close family members already living in Canada who are willing and able to support them 3.Economic/independent immigrants: Are four subcategories  i.Skilled workers (merit is based on points system) ii.Immigrant entrepreneurs (own and manage business that will contribute to economy and create jobs) iii.Immigrant investors (capitalists who plan to invest minimum $400,000 in business in Canada) iv.Self-employed immigrants*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-287 ETHNIC INEQUALITY AND THE CANADIAN LABOUR MARKET Porter: Canada as a vertical mosaic:  Society in which ethnic groups tend to occupy different and unequal positions in stratification system Two “charter groups” – English and French – predominated in various Canadian elites  Although two groups unequal, they still set discriminatory immigration policies and reserved for themselves top positions in occupational hierarchy*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-289 NET DIFFERENCE IN OCCUPATIONAL STATUS (1971) AND OCCUPATIONAL SKILL GROUP (2001) BETWEEN SELECTED ETHNIC GROUPS AND THE REST OF THE LABOUR FORCE, BY SEX, CANADA

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 8-290 DECLINING SIGNIFICANCE OF THE VERTICAL MOSAIC Debates over past two decades about whether race and ethnicity continue to shape stratification system:  Some claim vertical mosaic has been recast along racial lines  Yet research fails to support race as fundamental socioeconomic dividing line in Canadian society Is support though for vertical mosaic in terms of male immigrants in Canada:  Explanation  Devaluation of education credentials (regarded by some as reflection of racism)**

CHAPTER NINE Development and Underdevelopment Anthony Winson

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-293 INTRODUCTION Will examine: Theories of development Structural roots of underdevelopment Implementation and effects of neoliberalism in global south countries Role of state violence and war in production of poverty in global south countries Forms of resistance to neoliberalism*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-294 DEVELOPMENT Development initially associated with industrialization and democratization of society based on equal rights and freedoms of its citizens After WWII, development came to mean process that generated economic growth, industrialization, and modernization in regions and countries perceived to be poor, traditional, and undeveloped…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-295 DEVELOPMENT Arose out of the following: i.Competition between U.S.-led capitalist countries and Soviet Union-led communist countries ii.Business in developed West seeking new markets outside their traditional spheres of operation Is claim by some analysts that development and study of development have served to support world capitalism (i.e., economic system based on competitive enterprises seeking to maximize profits using wage labour)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-296 RELEVANCE OF DEVELOPMENT AND GLOBAL INEQUALITIES Can consider development in terms of (i) morality and social justice; and (ii) self-interest and need for security Are huge differences in income not only across countries but within countries as well Neighbourhood economy of global capitalism is maintained by system of power relations backed up by disproportionate wealth and, ultimately, willingness to exercise violence when all else fails*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-297 EARLY THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT 1.Development in Stages Human societies likened to social organisms that passed through stages of development and were susceptible to pathologies or diseases Rostow’s stages of development theory: Argued that a society at first was traditional, undifferentiated, and underdeveloped  Then entered stage of possible “take-off” with exposure to developed society  Ultimately moves along path to development as more efficiently scientific and technological diffusion occurs*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-298 EARLY THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT 2.Modernization Theory Emphasizes importance of values and norms as drivers of development  Assumption  Most of responsibility for economic “backwardness” lies with societies of the “third world” or “global south” themselves Development occurs then when citizens of poor countries adopt virtues of the developed North  If they fail to do so, they remain in pathological, undeveloped state*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-299 DEPENDENCY THEORY Takes a holistic view through the following: i.Recognizing each part of the world is shaped by, and helps to shape, a wider, global reality ii.Attending to the history and structure of relations between countries Established that it was precisely the nature of the relationship between metropolitan powers and satellite regions that blocked economic progress in the global south Recognized critical role of factors such as conquest of existing civilizations and West African slave trade*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-300 STRUCTURAL ROOTS OF UNDERDEVELOPMENT Dependency theory shows how social and economic structures established by European colonizing powers since about 1500 resulted in the following:  Distorted local societies for benefit of European traders and merchants  Later blocked emergence of industrial capitalism in the global south while propelling rapid development of industry in Western Europe (and later, North America) through extraction of resources from the global south*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-301 COUNTRIES VS. CLASSES AS CAUSES OF UNDERDEVELOPMENT Are two explanations in dependency theory for causes of underdevelopment: 1.Geographical version, which views exploitation as arising from unfavourable terms of trade 2.Marxist approach, which emphasizes class relationships and suggests nature of class interests are shaped by (i) underdevelopment, and (ii) types of class conflict that underdevelopment engendered*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-302 CLASS ALLIANCES AND STATE CONTROL The global south is not homogeneous  Each country has a unique history Different class alliances came to control the states of the global south, with widely different consequences for ensuing pattern of underdevelopment…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-303 CLASS ALLIANCES AND STATE CONTROL In periods when foreign influence weakest (e.g., during global recessions), in some countries internal elites and allies were able to establish local industrial enterprises and internal markets  Result: Deepened process of development and strengthened local economies In other especially small countries where foreign capital dominated, middle and industrial working classes failed to develop  Also, economy was based almost exclusively on exports of only few commodities*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-304 AGRARIAN CLASS STRUCTURE AND UNDERDEVELOPMENT In 1980s and 1990s, to understand better the processes of development and underdevelopment, researchers focused increasingly on role of the following:  Class structures  Class alliances, and  State policies…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-305 AGRARIAN CLASS STRUCTURE AND UNDERDEVELOPMENT Consequence of estates (large, privately owned agricultural enterprises employing many agricultural workers to produce export crops such as coffee, wheat, and cotton) in countries, such as Chile and Egypt:  Restricted purchasing power for workers who were compensated with small land plots rather than wages  Minimized need for advanced agricultural machinery given ready supply of cheap labour  Restricted demand for goods (including agricultural machinery) that small manufacturers could have produced locally  Gave enormous political power to estate owners*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-306 GEOGRAPHY AND BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES Diamond argued people’s environment heavily implicated in development of different societies Distinguished between proximate (or immediate) and ultimate (or fundamental) causes of development: i.Example of proximate cause of European development:  Development of firearms and modern metallurgy by Europeans, along with lack of resistance to deadly diseases in peoples of the Americas, were proximate causes of defeat of established, complex civilizations by marauding Spanish army in Latin America in 1520…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-307 GEOGRAPHY AND BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES ii.Example of ultimate cause of European development:  Europe especially rich in plants and animals that could be domesticated  East–west axis facilitated intermingling and dissemination of wide variety of species because of few geographical barriers and roughly similar climate across the region  Wealth of species available for domestication (in Middle East too) allowed for accumulation and storage of large food surpluses, which in turn enabled growth of large, complex, hierarchical societies*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-308 CRITICISMS OF DIAMOND’S THESIS While theory attractive to wide audience, is criticized for ignoring the following:  Existence of mountain ranges and deserts that surely impeded diffusion of domesticated plants and animals across Europe  Corn, a major staple, was disseminated from Central to South America  Crucial political factors, such as Europe developing - and then dominating - in marine transportation technology (arose in response to trade with Asia being cut by Ottoman Empire in 15 th century)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-309 THE NEOLIBERAL ERA: DEBT, STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT, AND UPHEAVAL IN THE SOUTH In recent years, neoliberal theory of economic development (advocated by Milton Friedman) has become influential in highest policy circles  Central tenet: Only in societies where markets are free of state interference can competitive entrepreneurs maximize economic growth for benefit of themselves and the rest of society  Theory favoured private rather than state solutions Contrasted with Keynesian approach (popular until 1970s) that advocated state intervention in the market*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-310 THE NEOLIBERAL ERA AND THE GLOBAL SOUTH The global south took advantage of substantial low- rate loans offered by international banks and lending institutions But after 1981, interest rates increased drastically plunging global south countries (especially South America) into debt crisis Faced with loan default, global south countries offered bailout if they instituted neoliberal policy as set out by structural adjustment programs (SAPs) of the Washington consensus that called for austerity, privatization, and market liberalization…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-311 THE NEOLIBERAL ERA AND THE GLOBAL SOUTH SAPs required indebted global south countries undertake the following:  Privatize state-owned enterprises, such as telephone and oil companies, and national banks  Let in international corporations and goods produced in developed countries  End tariff protection of local industry and agriculture  Radically curtail social welfare programs  Encourage new lines of agricultural exports*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-312 NEOLIBERALISM AND SAPS AS SOLUTIONS TO POVERTY Is debate over whether neoliberal reforms in developing countries have alleviated poverty or produced dramatic increase in global income inequality, widespread misery, and social dislocation Winners in neoliberal global economy include: Mexico, and the emergence of a new class of billionaires India and China, which enjoyed exponential rates of economic growth and growth of a middle class Large commercial agricultural producers…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-313 LEVEL OF CONSUMPTION VS. QUALITY OF LIFE AND THE ENVIRONMENT But economic benefits in India and China not necessarily positively correlated with increase in quality of life New urban life often characterized by the following: i.Increased personal insecurity along with dramatic increases in crime and violence ii.Negative health outcomes associated with polluted air and water…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-314 LEVEL OF CONSUMPTION VS. QUALITY OF LIFE AND THE ENVIRONMENT (New urban life often characterized by the following – cont’d) iii.Dangerous work environments iv.Deterioration in diet associated with consumption of fast food and low-quality street foods v.Massive environmental destruction and attendant health consequences (for both urban and rural residents) because of unregulated development*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-315 ABSOLUTE POVERTY AND GLOBAL INCOME INEQUALITY Despite economic gains in some countries, global income inequality is substantial The richest 5% in the world earn in 48 hours about what the poorest 5% earn in an entire year Also, price levels in most Asian countries are much higher than formerly assumed giving rise to many more poor people than previously estimated  Is now argued that global inequality is much greater than even the most pessimistic analysts thought*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-317 TRENDS IN INEQUALITY WITHIN AND BETWEEN COUNTRIES From 1930s to 1960s when welfare state being constructed and Keynesian economic policies being implemented, following trends were evident:  The gap between the rich and the poor decreased in all developed countries but only for some global south countries  Overall, the gap between rich countries and poor countries remained quite stable*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-318 TRENDS IN INEQUALITY WITHIN AND BETWEEN COUNTRIES After the 1970s, when neoliberal policies implemented, the following trends occurred:  Substantial increase in inequalities within countries  Increase in gap between countries (especially during 1980s) While other mitigating factors, overall neoliberalism helped widen the gap between the rich and the poor*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-319 GROWTH NEEDS STRONG STATES Neoliberal policies have not stimulated growth in the global south  Rather, growth rates were higher in decade before introduction of SAPs than in era when SAPs imposed by international lending agencies Lack of growth not surprising because rich countries (apart from Britain) also did not follow tenets of neoliberalism in own path to development  Clearly demonstrates need for substantial state involvement in development (e.g., “Asian tigers”)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-320 WOMEN UNDER NEOLIBERALISM In some parts of the global south (e.g., India and Thailand), neoliberal policies have been especially hard on women, partly because women form bulk of agricultural work force  Trade liberalization, which encourages import of heavily subsidized agricultural commodities from the developed countries, undermines rural incomes Elsewhere (e.g., Nicaragua and Nigeria), women have had to raise families on own as husbands are forced to migrate to cities or to developed world in search of cash income…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-321 STATE VIOLENCE, WAR, AND THE PRODUCTION OF POVERTY Military aggression and war also have helped to undermine development in much of post–WWII era From 1950s to late 1970s, under guise of making world “safe for democracy” and “fighting communism,” U.S. directly or indirectly was involved in series of military coups d’état in Latin America and elsewhere  Sometimes supported state terrorism resulting in tens of thousands of deaths and millions fleeing home countries…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-322 STATE VIOLENCE, WAR, AND THE PRODUCTION OF POVERTY “Domino theory” held if one country fell under communist influence, its neighbours would follow suit  Operating with domino theory in mind, U.S. began decade-long military intervention in Vietnam in 1960s  This intervention followed years of French colonial domination Soviet Union also sought to extend its influence and promote its favoured economic model by using military force to block efforts to democratize and liberalize authoritarian communist regimes within its sphere of influence…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-323 STATE VIOLENCE, WAR, AND THE PRODUCTION OF POVERTY Soviet economic and military aid also assisted struggles of different movements around the globe to remove colonial and neocolonial domination In 1970s, U.S. (with help of allies, such as France) provided military equipment, extensive training, and expertise to help install military governments in several global south countries  Oppressive military regimes typically forged strong ties with multinational corporations while brutally suppressing trade unions and popular organizations as well as groups that opposed them*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-324 STATE VIOLENCE, WAR, AND THE PRODUCTION OF POVERTY In 1980s, the U.S. government sponsored illegal arms deals to covert armies in order to… i.Fight revolutionary government in Nicaragua, and ii.Support South African government in its campaign to destabilize Mozambique and Angola In 21 st century, war has continued to plague parts of the global south (particularly sub- Saharan Africa and the Middle East), and undermined benefits that might come from development assistance*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-325 RESISTANCE TO THE NEOLIBERAL NEW WORLD ORDER 1.Government resistance: Since 2000, Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Venezuela have elected governments that oppose neoliberalism: Governments have sought to aid the landless and urban poor In some cases, have nationalized key resource industries in order to capture profits that for decades went largely to transnational companies with little local benefit*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-326 RESISTANCE TO THE NEOLIBERAL NEW WORLD ORDER 2.Popular resistance: In civil society, broad-based organizations have challenged neoliberal development model  Most prominent among these organization are (i) the World Social Forum and (ii) Via Campesina (international organization of peasant farmers, rural women, and landless workers that seeks to achieve social justice and gender parity in context of sustainable agricultural production)…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 9-327 RESISTANCE TO THE NEOLIBERAL NEW WORLD ORDER Popular resistance to neoliberalism in both the global south and the global north often takes form of sit-ins, demonstrations, and strikes on part of students, non-governmental organizations, unions, peasant associations, and trade unions Increasingly, however, resistance to neoliberalism has entered formal politics (e.g., 2008 American presidential race that sparked debate over damage done to both people and the environment by the North American Free Trade Agreement)**

CHAPTER TEN Families Bonnie Fox

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 330 INTRODUCTION Will examine: Dilemmas of contemporary family life Social origins of family patterns and related problems Myths and definitions of the family and attendant consequences Historical basis of current family arrangements Main features of social relations in family life today State response in supporting families*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 331 DILEMMAS OF CONTEMPORARY FAMILY LIFE In considering future and family, most envision a relationship in which work and responsibility, as well as intimacy and joy, are shared but is often not the case Females especially are concerned about how to one day manage family and career, while males are more concerned with growing elusiveness of occupational success in an uncertain economy…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 332 DILEMMAS OF CONTEMPORARY FAMILY LIFE Lesbians and gays face even greater challenges creating families in a society organized around heterosexuality and gender divisions Parenthood without a partner is also particularly difficult: While two-earner couples find juggling income earning and child care stressful, the task increases exponentially for a lone parent Inequalities based on social class and the disadvantages women and racial minorities face in the labour force provide the inhospitable context in which all Canadians build their families*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 334 CENTRALITY OF THE NUCLEAR FAMILY Society is organized around the nuclear family (where man is main breadwinner and woman has primary responsibility for child-rearing) Organization reflected in:  Design of homes (not intended for extended families)  Social policies (assumption that earnings shared between husbands and wives; inadequate child- care facilities)  Gendered division of labour*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 335 MYTHS AND FACTS ABOUT FAMILY Women who combine motherhood with labour- force involvement are not mentally and physically healthier than mothers who stay home. Babies and toddlers need full-time mothers at home. The traditional European family consisted of three generations living harmoniously under one roof. The heterosexual breadwinner/homemaker family is “natural.” MYTHS FACTS * Although families today seem to be disintegrating when compared to the idealized family of the 1950s, a broader historical view shows that problems in family life are not new. * Women home full-time with young children often find the situation stressful and isolating * There is little scientific evidence that babies and toddlers need full-time mothers at home. * Extended family households – consisting of three generations – were rare in preindustrial Europe. Other myths about the European family are that children spent much of childhood in the care of their parents rather than others, and that the elderly could expect to be well cared for by their adult children. In the 19 th century, for example, working class parents typically worked much longer and harder than they do now, and child care was minimal; a fifth of children lived in orphanages; and family disruption rates were higher, due mainly to death, not divorce.

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 336 “FAMILY VALUES”: CONSEQUENCES OF MYTHS ABOUT FAMILY Recent calls for a return to “family values”:  Evokes myth of problem-free past  Blames social problems on deviations from traditional heterosexual breadwinner/homemaker ideal  Reinforces individual rather than social responsibility for welfare of children and other dependents  Falsely assumes only one type of family that can adequately raise children, and that choices are made independently of gender, class, and race*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 337 THE MYTH OF THE NATURAL FAMILY Evolutionary psychology or sociobiology (type of biological determinism):  Views human behaviour as a product of human evolution, and the nuclear family as rooted in biology of reproduction  Argues aggressive males and nurturing females are adaptive to reproductive success  Makes nuclear family a universal product of evolution Yet universality of nuclear family not supported with observable evidence, either today or in the past*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 338 STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM Argues heterosexual nuclear family is universal because of essential functions it performs for larger society, including:  Socialization, reproduction, emotional satisfaction, and economic efficiency Criticisms:  Other social forms might perform same functions in ways that benefit individuals more  Existing institutions are not necessarily universal or ideal  Tensions in family life can generate social change, rather than promote social order*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 339 IMPORTANCE OF DEFINITIONS How family is defined has practical and methodological consequences:  Rights and responsibilities follow from definitions Who constitutes a “family member” can dictate:  Disclosure of confidential information  Ability to make decisions on behalf of “relative”  Entitlement to various forms of social support  Understanding in research about families*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 340 DEFINITION OF “FAMILY” A set of social relationships that work to reproduce life on a daily and generational basis Definition focuses on both individual survival and generational reproduction across many cultures Does not exclude groupings of people who function as a family but may lack formal recognition Focus is not on biological reproduction but rather social reproduction:  Wide range of activities that maintain existing life and reproduce next generation*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 341 OTHER FAMILY PATTERNS: 1. FORAGING SOCIETIES (THE COMMUNAL HOUSEHOLD) To subsist, people gather edibles (typically done by women) and hunt live game (typically done by men) Are nomadic and live in fairly small camps or bands Reciprocity and individual cooperation essential for survival of the collective Relatively egalitarian relations between men and women …*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 342 1. FORAGING SOCIETIES Nuclear unit established by marriage, but family life is collectivized rather than privatized Unit of social production is the camp:  The community (not the family) assumes many key responsibilities  While child care is women’s responsibility, is widely shared  Violence between spouses treated as community rather than private problems Nuclear unit not as important economically or socially as in our society*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 343 2. PREINDUSTRIAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES: HOUSEHOLD ECONOMIES Household was productive unit (producing subsistence was main objective) Social relations of family life were also relations of production  Non-family members were brought into household when their labour was necessary Land (key means of production) privately owned  Marriage (and adulthood) predicated on acquiring land or some other means of livelihood…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 344 2. PREINDUSTRIAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES Practical, economic considerations dominated marriage decisions and family life (vs. sentimental or romantic feelings) Women strictly subordinate to men, but their economic contribution was crucial  Few children raised exclusively at home by mothers given women’s critical economic role Since household was place of work, business and family life not distinguished  Interests of the collective took precedence over individual autonomy*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 345 ORIGINS OF CONTEMPORARY FAMILY PATTERNS IN WESTERN SOCIETIES Industrialization of 19th century eroded household economies and made external economies dominant Effects on family:  Separation of private and public spheres (family now belonged to private sphere)  Emergence of sexual division of labour: Women assumed responsibilities in private sphere (e.g., childcare), while men assumed responsibilities in public sphere (e.g., paid labour force)  High levels of emotional involvement in family relations*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 346 MIDDLE CLASS FAMILIES Contemporary notion of family established by emergent 19th century middle class  Middle class attempted to assert its identity and power by establishing moral superiority “Cult of domesticity” developed in response to emerging economy perceived as cruel, immoral, and beyond human control  Family idealized as place of peace, virtue, and selfless love of children  “Haven in a heartless world”*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 347 MIDDLE CLASS FAMILIES Men’s work moved into public sphere, while women specialized in domestic affairs  Wives became economically dependent on husbands, giving rise to increased gender inequality  Separation of men’s and women’s daily work undermined emotional closeness between them Men and women came to be regarded as different by nature  Womanhood glorified as morally superior*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 348 WORKING CLASS FAMILIES Family life endangered in the 19 th- century working class Men’s wages so low that small children forced to work for wages Women dependency on men gave rise to strained relations between men and women Marital tensions focused on money (violence against women probably frequent)…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 349 WORKING CLASS FAMILIES Families doubled up to save on rent Some families forced to place children in orphanages out of economic necessity Individual needs often sacrificed to imperatives of family survival Trade unions responded by demanding a family wage (i.e., wage paid to a man sufficient to support a wife and children)  Led to a working-class conception of family similar to that of middle class*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 350 SOCIAL RELATIONS IN FAMILIES TODAY: MAIN FEATURES Emotionally intense relationship between a man and woman became key to marriage only in 20 th century Family violence typified by women more likely to suffer serious injury from husbands, lovers, and especially ex-partners Characterized by intense mother-child relationship Individuals rather than state or community were deemed responsible for children’s welfare  Child abuse sometimes results from heavy responsibilities placed on parents, especially mothers…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 351 SOCIAL RELATIONS IN FAMILIES TODAY: MAIN FEATURES The need for regular and dependable sexual gratification is one reason people marry Sexual relations are usually intense because they involve repression of sexuality that is socially disfavoured Sexual relations have historically been regulated by the state in ways that favour marriage and ensure procreation The state has opposed homosexuality, contraception, and abortion (because of its opposition to pronatalism; i.e., policy aimed at increasing population)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 352 SOCIAL RELATIONS IN FAMILIES TODAY: MAIN FEATURES Erosion of wages has led to most women now working outside of home:  Issue of who cares for children now a social problem  Women faced daily with need to juggle incompatible demands of employment and family  Stress of women’s “double day” generates tension between women and their male partners  Men now doing more housework and child-care than decades ago, but responsibilities still not equally shared with women…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 354 SOCIAL RELATIONS IN FAMILIES TODAY: MAIN FEATURES Increased diversity in household patterns:  More people living alone  People marrying at later age  More people never marrying  More people cohabiting (cohabiting men and women are fastest growing family-type in Canada)…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 355 SOCIAL RELATIONS IN FAMILIES TODAY: MAIN FEATURES (Increased diversity in household patterns…) Growing number of gay and lesbian families Compared to heterosexual couples, gay couples:  Face uphill battle for acceptance as families  Have relationships as stable as heterosexual cohabiting couples  Are more likely to have egalitarian housework and child-care arrangements  Have families more out of choice  Have children with similar levels of wellbeing…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 356 SOCIAL RELATIONS IN FAMILIES TODAY: MAIN FEATURES (Increased diversity in household patterns…) Growing incidence of lone parent families Large numbers of “reconstituted families” (result of decades of fairly high divorce rates)  Often gives rise to complicated network of family relations Increased incidence of “boomerang” children and young adults continuing to live with parents Are racial, ethnic, and class differences as well*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 358 SEXUALITY AND FAMILIES Love and promise of ongoing intimacy and caring propel people into long-term commitment Today, men and women typically are sexually active prior to entering committed relationship Sexual activity decreases considerably over course of relationship (for all types of relationships) Intimacy negotiated amidst gender differences (men typically experience sex as route to intimacy vs. women who seek intimacy prior to sex)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 359 GENDER AND FAMILIES Most nuclear families built around heterosexual couple reflect gendered division of labour Adults develop gender strategies that prioritize either career/job or family relationships Gender strategies result from:  Mix of ideas about gender in our culture  Emotionally charged reactions to childhood  Job and child-care opportunities  Constraints people face as adults*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 360 HOUSEWORK AND FAMILIES While men do more housework than in earlier times, they do much less housework than their female partners Women’s bargaining power in negotiating household responsibilities is undermined by their:  Disadvantage in the labour market  Perceived disadvantage in remarriage market  Cultural devaluation of caring work  Cultural definitions of gender (especially masculinity)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 362 PARENTHOOD AND FAMILIES Medicalization of childbirth has resulted in less social support for women  Lack of social support implicated in postpartum depression commonly experienced by new mothers Ties to extended family strengthen, while ties to friends tend to weaken Gendered division of labour increases substantially when couples become parents*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 363 HOUSEWORK AND MOTHERWORK Women tend to assume bulk of caring for babies and greater proportion of housework after childbirth Men tend to become babies’ playmates and wives’ “helpers” Growing conviction today that children’s development is adversely affected by isolation and stress experienced by full-time mothers, and emotional distance often result of fathers’ absence from home  Care by several adults and spending part of day outside home aids child’s social and cognitive development*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 364 MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE Persistence of conventional gendered division of work despite increasing numbers of women working outside of home has resulted in:  Increase in divorce (estimated that 30% of marriages in Canada will end in divorce)  Pressure on men to assume new family roles  Need for new social policies Changes in family law reflect new circumstances (e.g., more liberalized divorce law and more equal division of “family assets” upon divorce)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 365 DIVORCE AND ITS AFTERMATH Dissolution of marriage or intimate relationship brings turmoil for considerable period of time for all parties (parents and children) Women often initiate divorce because of violence Most important consequence for women - and the children who live with them - is significantly lowered standard of living*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 366 LONE PARENTS AND RECONSTITUTED FAMILIES Increase in proportion of unmarried mothers in last two decades Poverty is chief problem facing lone-parent families  Poverty related to women’s disadvantaged position in labour market Reconstituted families: Adults who divorce typically remarry  But divorce rates are higher for second marriages (often adjustment problems for stepparents and stepchildren)*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 367 POLICIES TO SUPPORT FAMILIES Chief problem: Difficulty of caring for children while earning enough money to support a family Policy response in most industrialized countries includes:  Direct family subsidies  Significant paid parental leave following birth  High-quality, subsidized child-care facilities…*

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd 10- 368 POLICIES TO SUPPORT FAMILIES Two different policy approaches co-exist in Canada: 1.In English Canada, children assumed to be private rather than collective responsibility  Government cutbacks in social services and avoidance of commitment to universal daycare have increased burden on most families, especially lone-parent families 2.In Quebec, family policies created that feature universal, affordable childcare and family subsidies to low-income and lone-parent families**

PowerPoint Presentation prepared by Terri Petkau, Mohawk College.

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PowerPoint Presentation prepared by Terri Petkau, Mohawk College.

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