PowerPoint Presentation prepared by Terri Petkau, Mohawk College

PowerPoint Presentation prepared by Terri Petkau, Mohawk College

CHAPTER FIVE The Mass Media Josh Greenberg Graham Knight

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd
INTRODUCTION Will examine: The mass media and interactive media Theoretical approaches in media studies Political economy of the media Role of television in the economy, culture, and identity News and ideology Research on media effects Forms of computer-mediated communication* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd

COMMUNICATION Communication: To bring together or unify by establishing shared meanings and understandings between groups and individuals* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

THE MASS MEDIA AND INTERACTIVE MEDIA
Mass media: Technologically-mediated means of communication in which flow of messages is largely unidirectional from a single point of transmission to a large, anonymous, dispersed audience of receivers (e.g., television) Interactive media: Communications flow back and forth; people exchange roles with one another in the transmission and reception of communication (e.g., social networking websites)* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd People once commonly distinguished mass media from interactive media. With mass media, communication flows are unidirectional, going from a transmission point, such as a television or radio station, to an audience whose members remain anonymous and isolated from one another. With interactive media, like the telephone or social networking websites, communications flow back and forth. Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

THEORETICAL APPROACHES IN MEDIA STUDIES
The technological perspective: Derives primarily from the work of (i) Innis and (ii) McLuhan Innis  Made distinction between two types of media: Time-based media Space-based media Each type fosters different social perceptions, interactions, and institutional arrangements…* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

1. TECHNOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE: i. INNIS
Time-based media: Modes of communication that endure over time but are not very mobile across space (e.g. writing on stone or clay tablets) Are conducive to strong sense of tradition and custom Promote religious forms of power and belief* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

1. TECHNOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE: i. INNIS
Space-based media: Modes of communication that can cover greater areas of space but are much less durable over time (e.g., writing on paper; sounds transmitted over airwaves) Lead to territorial expansion, empire building, and more secular forms of power and culture Different forms of power create different types of social division and conflict: Struggle against elite control by those excluded from power has resulted in shift from time- to space-based media* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

1. TECHNOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE: ii. MCLUHAN
Argued influence of mass media on society is mediated by the way the media change people’s sense perceptions and cognitive processes Example  Invention of printing, which… Undermined oral communication by establishing more visual culture where words are linked in a linear way Promoted interpreting the world in linear, cause-and-effect way…* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd This encouraged a view of the world as composed of separate objects. Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

Invention of printing, which… (continued) Moved communication away from face-to-face interaction, making information more abstract Fostered individualism, privacy, rationality, and social differentiation (through abstracting effect) Encouraged view of world as composed of separate objects Enabled standardizing of national languages* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

Effects of innovation of television: Allows for instantaneous communication Helps viewers achieve better sensory balance Unlike print, does not rely solely on one sense Is more socially inclusive than print Ushered in new era of global democracy in “global village”* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd The spread of electronic media (e.g., TV) ended era of print dominance. Global village: Where expansive information-gathering and transmission capacities of modern societies could make us more aware of and familiar with the activities of people in other parts of the world McLuhan’s notion of a “global village” predated the arrival of the Internet and other new communication technologies. Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

Theory largely dismissed as technological determinism: Social change is determined by nature and function of technology, not by conscious human action* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

2. THE CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE
Holds that (i) institutions (such as the news media) and (ii) processes (such as socialization and social control) cannot be understood from viewpoint of society as a whole Rather, need to be understood from that of unequal and conflicting groups and classes…* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd

2. THE CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE
Capitalist class and other powerful groups reinforce their position and maintain status quo through: Control over dominant ideology (interests, perspectives, viewpoints, and understandings of dominant class and other powerful groups) Establishment of hegemony (dominant class using media to naturalize and universalize dominant ideology and absorb challenge of alternative and oppositional viewpoints)…* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd In this view, institutions such as media must be understood from viewpoint of unequal and conflicting groups and classes. One strength of the critical perspective is that it draws attention to the ways that the social and cultural roles of the media depend on their role as agents of political and economic power and interests. Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

2. CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE: FIRST VARIANT
Control over dominant ideology Initially developed by Horkheimer and Adorno: Viewed media as part of broader “culture industry” that functions to create “mass deception” about exploitative and oppressive character of capitalist society “Propaganda model” of Herman and Chomsky: Suggested that media “filters” information to reduce or eliminate radical or subversive views…* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd

HERMAN AND CHOMSKY: FILTERS
Five main filters used by media: Orientation to profit-making Dependency on advertising for revenue and profit Reliance on powerful institutions and individuals as sources of information Negative reaction (“flak”) if media deviate from promoting elite interests and values Adherence to anti-communism as overarching belief system (anti-communism since replaced by “war on terrorism;” e.g., Iraq war)* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd

2. CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE: SECOND VARIANT
Establishment of hegemony Dominant groups control both resistance and struggle (which arise from inequality) by accommodating and incorporating range of different viewpoints, including: Oppositional viewpoints: Represent experiences of subordinated groups against those of the powerful Alternative viewpoints: Blend of elements of dominant and oppositional viewpoints* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd Although the media usually promote understandings that conform to the dominant ideology, their messages are always at least partially open to the challenge of alternative and oppositional interpretations To be successful, hegemony has to be flexible enough to accommodate and incorporate a range of different viewpoints 1. Alternative viewpoints: Interpretations that differ from the meanings contained in society’s dominant ideology Represent compromises between dominant ideology and the meanings promoted by oppositional viewpoints 2. Oppositional viewpoints: Used to interpret reality in terms that contradict the dominant ideology Representing experiences of subordinated groups against those of the powerful Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF THE MEDIA
Focuses on: Ownership and control of economic resources, and Effect of technology and economic power on cultural values, social structure, and political decision making Notes increasing concentration of ownership and control of media (e.g., multimedia chains, such as Disney) Enhanced by development of digital technologies* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd Ownership and control of the mass media are generally becoming more concentrated in a smaller number of giant corporate hands. This trend is part of the wider process of economic globalization, and it is leading to the creation of large multimedia chains— corporations that own a diversified array of media operations and outlets in different fields, such as radio, TV, and publishing, and operate worldwide. Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

THE WALT DISNEY COMPANY
Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd One of the world’s best-known multimedia corporations is the Walt Disney Company, whose total revenues in 2005 stood at US$35.5 billion. Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF THE MEDIA: MUTIMEDIA CHAINS
Multimedia chains practice both: Horizontal consolidation: Sharing of facilities and resources between different plants and outlets Vertical integration: Controlling of resources and assets at different stages of production Example: Ownership of major league sports team along with stations and cable channels on which games televised* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd Multimedia chains are corporations that own a diversified array of media operations and outlets in different fields, such as radio, TV, and publishing, and operate worldwide. Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

GLOBAL ENTERTAINMENT MEDIA CORPORATIONS
Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd The world’s dominant media corporations are primarily U.S.-based. Only two of the top six media giants are headquartered outside the United States—Bertelsmann and Vivendi—and these are located in Western Europe (Rupert Murdoch’s News Corporation is a joint American–Australian company). Four Canadian companies make it into the global top 50: Rogers, Quebecor, CanWest Global, and Shaw. SOURCE: Supplement to Variety: 93rd Anniversary Edition, August 24–30, 1998, p. 37. Reprinted with permission. Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

NEWSPAPERS: CONCENTRATION, MONOPOLY, AND ADVERTISING
The critical perspective argues homogenization of news coverage and decline in diversity in news topics and viewpoints are result of: Multimedia chain ownership (e.g., Bell Globemedia) Advertising dependency Local newspaper monopolies But research evidence supporting link is inconclusive* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd Freedom of the press and diversity of opinion are both regarded as necessary for a democratic society. Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

TELEVISION: ECONOMY, CULTURE, AND IDENTITY
Greatest impact on content and role of television: Commercialization and advertising Canadian television largely dominated by American television industry Domination derided by critical theorists as cultural imperialism  When one society’s media exert overwhelming and unilateral influence over another society’s culture* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd In Canada, corporate ownership and control of daily newspapers has undergone rapid change since the 1970s and has become highly concentrated. CanWest Global, Quebecor Media Inc., and Torstar dominate the field today. CanWest Global owns daily newspapers in Vancouver, Calgary, Edmonton, Saskatoon, Ottawa, Montreal, and Halifax, and has control of the Toronto-based National Post, one of only two national newspapers. Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

PERCENTAGE VIEWING TELEVISION 15 OR MORE HOURS PER WEEK, CANADA, 2007
Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd Strong support for the argument that TV drama enforces cultural identity can be found in Quebec, with its commitment to francophone drama and other entertainment programming on the part of both public and private TV. Strong national and cultural identity on the part of francophone Quebeckers matches this commitment. Francophones not only watch more Canadian programming but also watch proportionately more television drama than Anglophones do. Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

VALUE OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN CULTURAL GOODS, CANADA, 2007 (THOUSANDS OF DOLLARS) Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd As evidence of cultural imperialism, critical theorists point to the uneven flow of television and other cultural products between countries. Canada is one of the world’s largest importers of cultural products—in 2007, Canada’s cultural trade deficit was $2 billion (Statistics Canada, 2008f; see Table 5.3). The bulk of our cultural imports come from the United States. Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

Critics of cultural nationalist position argue that although dramatic television is important, Canadians also develop sense of collective national identity through their overwhelming preferences for domestic news and public affairs programming Example: Despite consumption of American programming, Canadians overwhelmingly prefer to get their news and public affairs information from the CBC and CTV rather than Fox or CBS* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

Concern that Canadian culture is under siege by American-style programming also ignores fact that many high-profile faces in American mass media are originally Canadian Might also question supposed Americanization of Canadian identity through the mass media by noting Canada is quickly becoming a “postnational” society* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd Because of economic and cultural globalization, a strong, unified, and permanent sense of national identity may be a thing of the past. Canadians’ sharing of institutions and practices seems undiminished by the fact that English Canadians can’t get enough of CSI or The Hills. Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

REPRESENTATION AND IDEOLOGY: THE MEANING OF THE MESSAGE
Media communicate messages on different levels: the pleasurable, the meaningful, the entertaining, and the informative Communication entails process of representation: Use of language, visual images, and other symbolic tools to portray something in a coherent meaningful way that others can understand Sociologists use term, framing, to denote selective, organized nature of representation that has ideological effects* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd To frame is to set up boundaries that define where the representation begins and ends, and to organize the contents in a way that distinguishes what is being emphasized (the foreground) from what is treated as secondary (the context or background). The framing of any media product or object—a news report, an advertisement, a political cartoon or a TV drama—has ideological effects inasmuch as it entails a particular inflection or bias. Every frame is only one of several different ways of seeing and interpreting something. Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

NEWS AND IDEOLOGY News media: One of principle sources of information about social reality Conservative and critical writers disagree about which of following two positions apply: News media as supporting “left-liberal” bias that runs counter to views and interests of society’s mainstream (endorsed by conservative perspective) News media as representative of dominant ideology given concentrated ownership and hierarchy of access (endorsed by critical perspective)* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd Conservative analysts accuse news media of “left-liberal” bias which operates in three ways: As an anti-corporate bias (reflected in news media being critical of market-oriented solutions to social problems) As more favourable attention to views of interest groups and constituencies that share left-wing political views As focus on negative events, issues, and news angles (instead of positive aspects of social life) Critical analysts note that ownership of daily newspapers is so highly concentrated in Canada that it has led some critics to ask whether our press is sufficiently free and diverse. Concentrated ownership has led to the homogenized news coverage, increasing dependence of newspapers on advertising revenue, and a decidedly pro-business slant on the part of newspapers. A hierarchy of access exists to and for the media, and this has important ideological implications, as it reflects the general distribution of power in society. Because of their power and status, corporate officials can easily gain access to the news media when they choose to do so. Also, the news functions to reproduce the dominant ideology not through a conspiracy, but due to the unconscious effect of journalists’ values on the news gathering process. Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

DEFINING THE NEWS News values: Criteria used by news media to define and represent events and issues Criteria include: Immediacy (can write stories in present tense) Personalization (can reduce causes and explanations to level of individual motives and psychology) Extraordinariness (events and issues entail conflict, confrontation, deviance, or disorder)* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd Immediacy has always been a major element in the competition among different mass media, and the goal of making communication faster dominates the history of media technology. Whenever possible, reporters write news in the present tense to convey the sense that events are ongoing. Personalization is especially strong in political news coverage, as the mass media focus on party leaders and other prominent politicians and their popularity in the opinion polls. Critics often charge that this focus detracts from a fuller understanding of the political system and the more substantive aspects of political policy (Taras, 1990). Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

NEWS AND DOMINANT IDEOLOGY
While news dwells on the negative, it still reinforces dominant ideology by: Reinforcing dominant definitions of what is normal and desirable, and Focusing on actions of appropriate social control authorities* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd Although critical theorists see the media as generally representative of dominant ideology, they also recognize that relations between journalists and their sources involve an ongoing struggle for control (Ericson, Baranek, and Chan, 1989). The outcome depends chiefly on the status of the sources and the power they can exercise over the flow of information. Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

GATHERING THE NEWS In preparing new stories, the mass media rely on: Official news sources: Representatives of dominant institutions used by media to define basic meaning of issue or event (e.g., politicians, police officers, professionals, experts) Ordinary news sources: Sources without a group affiliation (e.g., victims or eye witnesses) Alternative news sources: Representatives of social movements and social advocacy/activism groups, whose viewpoints often diverge from those of dominant social groups* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd Official news sources appear more frequently and prominently than other sources and are usually treated by the media as authoritative and credible. As victims, ordinary sources personalize the harmful effects (actual and potential) of bad news. Alternative sources address the social problems that underlie the harm that ordinary victims suffer. In this respect, they compete with official sources over the definition of victimhood: who is a victim, who is responsible, who should act, and what should be done. Alternative sources attempt to reframe the experiences and emotions groups, case workers, or people with mental illness as their primary source of information and interpretation. Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

TORONTO “DAYS OF ACTION” HEADLINES
Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd Above all, news concerns events and issues that are out of the ordinary, and that entail conflict, confrontation, deviance, or disorder (Knight, 1982). As conservative critics point out, this means that news is normally about the negative. For critical theorists, however, the negative emphasis of news does not undermine mainstream values and beliefs, but in fact reinforces dominant ideology in at least two ways. First, by dwelling on the negative, news invokes and reproduces dominant definitions of what is normal. It identifies certain events and actors as dangerous, bizarre, or disruptive, and represents them as a threat to what is socially desirable (Knight, 1982; see Figure 5.2). SOURCE: The Toronto Star, October 24–26,1996. Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

MEDIA EFFECTS AND AUDIENCES
Are two approaches to study of media effects: Study of effects of media violence: Concerns about effects of media violence overshadow concerns about its causes Audience interpretation: Examines the way viewers make sense of what they see and hear on television* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd Early research on the psychological and behavioural effects of the media swung between two poles of opinion. In the 1930s and 1940s, the effects of the media were generally thought to be harmful, direct, and strong. By the early 1960s, however, the prevailing view had been revised and media influence came to be seen as more innocuous. This shift in views suggests that the issue of media effects is complex, and this is especially true in the case of media violence. Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

MEDIA VIOLENCE Two main approaches in current media research: Cultivation analysis: Examines effect of media violence on attitudes Gerbner: Argues long-term exposure gives rise to “‘mean world’ syndrome” Focus on effects of television on behaviour Predominant view: Media violence has some real-life effects* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd The cultivation analysis stems from research on television effects by George Gerbner and his associates. Gerbner argues that long-term exposure to television tends to cultivate perceptions that are often at odds with reality (Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, and Signorielli, 1994). One of the main arguments of the cultivation perspective is that people who watch a lot of television (or play a lot of video games) will be more exposed to violent imagery and more likely to perceive society as more violent and dangerous than it really is. Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

MEDIA VIOLENCE Evidence inconclusive on alleged causal relationship between media violence and violent behaviour Laboratory experiments purporting to demonstrate relationship are criticized on grounds of artificiality Alternate explanation: Social learning theory, that suggests media violence provides scripts that teach children how and when to act aggressively However, relationship between TV and real violence is bidirectional  Watching violent TV fosters aggressiveness, but those who prefer to watch violent TV already have more aggressive tendencies* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd Studies of the effects of television on behaviour have been subject to a variety of criticisms, the most significant of which have been methodological. Laboratory experiments have been strongly criticized for their inability to replicate the normal social conditions under which people, particularly children, watch TV (McCormack, 1994). Children, like adults, normally watch a mixture of violent and nonviolent programming that blend together in an ongoing flow (Freedman, 2002). Younger children watch more television than older children and they also watch it more intermittently because of their shorter attention span and because the social setting provides an easy distraction. As a result, although the TV set may be on for long periods, the children are not paying attention to it a large part of the time. The question of what exactly counts as an “act of violence” is also poorly defined and could include a host of examples, from shooting police officers in Grand Theft Auto to repeated broadcasts of the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center in 2001. Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

AUDIENCE RESEARCH: INTERPRETATION AND MEDIA USE
Television has been primary focus of audience research because since WWII it has played central role in definition of private sphere in modern society (i.e., family, domesticity, gender relations, consumption, and suburban living) Research tradition argues people are not passive recipients of message: Rather, people often filter, interpret, and even challenge messages they see and hear based on their social context, experiences, and beliefs* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd But these contexts, experiences, and beliefs are themselves influenced by media use. Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

TV has spread to other social settings, such as bars, malls, classrooms, and sports stadiums TV has also become more dispersed within the household allowing more autonomy and privacy in viewing habits Personalized watching has also been encouraged by proliferation of specialty channels and services catering to particular tastes and interests…* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd

New interactive technologies have become more accessible, creating a more complex communications environment that mediates the role and tempers the impact that any single medium can have at home, work, or school These changes have shifted the focus of audience research toward the ways television fits into the broader media culture* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd New interactive technologies include mobile phones, personal computers, and so-called third screens (iPods and other portable media devices). A study of media use by adolescents of Punjabi background in England illustrates the change (Gillespie, 1995). The study demonstrates how television is used to preserve a distinct sense of religious and ethnic customs, identity, and community, and to negotiate individual difference and autonomy in the face of pressures to conform to family expectations. For example, viewing Hindi films on video was a common family practice and was seen as an important way of reinforcing linguistic and cultural identification with India, especially for females, who took on the role of preserving and transmitting cultural traditions more than males did. At the same time, television also exposed these adolescents to the pressures of the wider culture with its emphasis on individualism and consumption. The marketing of products aimed at young consumers, particularly products associated with an American lifestyle, such as fast food, is becoming increasingly globalized. Thus, TV ads for McDonald’s and Coca-Cola as well as the products themselves were consumed as a way of negotiating and accommodating the various identity demands—Punjabi, English, Asian, European, even Anglo-American—that these adolescents faced. Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

THE INTERNET: COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION
Forms of computer-mediated communication (CMC): , instant messaging (IM), blogs and chat rooms, video-sharing sites (e.g., YouTube) and social networking applications (e.g., Facebook and MySpace) Constantly-changing nature of Internet (both technologically and socially) and research on its structure, use, and effects have produced divergent findings and interpretations that compound its uncertainty* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd The fact that these media have given rise to a host of new terms, like cyberspace, online communities, virtual reality, digital culture, Web 2.0, and so on, suggests that the primary definition of CMC is uncertain and under continuous development. Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

THE INTERNET: COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION
Macrolevel research has focused not only on inequalities in terms of Internet access, usage, and scope, but also on the ways in which new media technologies challenge our understanding of what CMC means Microlevel research has been concerned with the reciprocal effects between offline and online interaction* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd As the Internet has developed, research has tended to paint a more complex picture of its role and how it is changing. Microlevel research studies have addressed issues of individual and collective identity, surveillance, and social action in situations where individuals bring their offline information and interaction into their online activities. Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

THE DIGITAL DIVIDE: CMC AND SOCIAL INEQUALITY
Digital divide: Term used to explain how access to and use of CMC reproduce structural inequities Has been rapid Internet growth since early 1990s, but still considerable inequality in access and use Social class, occupation, and education tend to be strong predictors of usage Access related to race and ethnicity more in USA than in Canada* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd While access to the Internet has grown rapidly, not only in developed nations but also in developing countries, disparities persist in terms of race, class, gender, and technology. Big gender differences marked early access to the Internet, with males outnumbering females by a wide margin; this difference has declined over time. In Canada in 2007, men over the age of 15 only slightly outnumbered women over the age of 15 online, while women between the ages of 35 and 54 outnumbered men (Statistics Canada, 2008i). Similarly, the racial and ethnic differences have become less marked. Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

THE INTERNET: DIFFERENCES OF USE
still most commonly used form of CMC among Canadians although overall use becoming more varied (e.g., for educational, financial, and consumption purposes, in particular) Like access, use varies by social status and identity Some research finds women more likely than men to have accounts on social networking sites Differences in usage indicate different desires and needs of audience segments and their need for culturally-specific content* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd Women, however, are less likely than men to participate in business-networking sites such as LinkedIn. Differences become inequalities to the degree that they translate into uneven advantages in terms of their offline consequences. Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

CANADIAN INTERNET USE AT HOME BY INTERNET ACTIVITY, 2007
Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd is still the most commonly used form of CMC among Canadians, but overall use of the Internet is becoming more varied and it is increasing for educational, financial, and consumption purposes in particular. SOURCE: The Toronto Star, October 24–26,1996. Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

WEB 2.0: THE NEW DIGITAL DIVIDE?
Web 1.0 involved uploading and downloading text and images that users simply consumed Web 2.0 encourages users to be digital collaborators, building web pages and blogs; creating content by uploading and mixing videos on YouTube; and editing, deleting, and adding to encyclopedic information on Wikipedia Critics suggest Web 2.0 is way for media corporations to exploit users by replacing skilled labour (such as web design) with the “free” labour of audiences* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd Web 2.0, a term commonly used to refer to interactive web technologies such as photo sharing and social networking embedded in websites such as Flickr and Twitter, creates new imbalances between those who create content and share information, and those who profit from it. Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

VIRTUAL COMMUNITY: THE INTERNET’S IMPACT
Rapid growth of the Internet has prompted concern about its supposedly negative effects, including obesity, inactive leisure time, poor diet, declining reading rates, and addiction to its use But the Internet also can be source of valuable information that can inform and promote active and healthy lifestyles to at-risk populations New media also opens possibilities for civic engagement and activism as well as identity expression* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd Instead of being seen as an isolating activity, the growing number of people online and the widespread use of , instant messaging, and blogging by Canadians suggest that people are using the Internet to connect with others, thus enhancing social interaction and identity expression. Boyd (2007) notes the importance of social networking sites as spaces for youth to perform “identity work” at a time when the availability of physical social spaces, such as community centres, is declining. As such, online social networking communities can be as socially and emotionally supportive for their members as communities that are based on face-to-face interaction. Even online forums, such as newsgroups (e.g., reddit and digg), designed primarily to provide factual information, can have socially supportive side effects, as news stories permit participants to comment on and share information with others. Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

SURVEILLANCE AND PRIVACY 2.0
With implementation of social networking sites, online interaction is becoming increasingly less anonymous, raising concerns about privacy and surveillance Sites are being used as spaces of digital voyeurism for individuals to spy on each other as well as havens for predators to lurk on unsuspecting youth However, some cite lack of empirical evidence for youth abduction Despite concerns, police and other criminal investigations have used social networking sites to track down locations of offenders* Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd Some researchers cite a lack of empirical evidence that links social networking to youth abduction and note that this “technopanic” obscures the more pressing issue of the sexual exploitation of youth that occurred long before Internet use became prevalent In sum, research shows unanticipated risks and rewards of participating in Web 2.0 technologies. Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

THE BLOGOSPHERE: SOCIAL ACTIVISM 2.0
The blogosphere, a virtual community of blogs and bloggers, is another Web 2.0 technology that has social implications offline Blogosphere resembles a physical community inasmuch as it facilitates shared values, a sense of belonging, and a common purpose Prominence of the blogosphere in media coverage illustrates power and potential of the Internet to invigorate democratic debate But should remain mindful that commodification may eventually temper current enthusiasm** Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd Blogs are now easy to launch, thanks to sites like Blogspot, where users can upload images, hyperlink other articles, and syndicate their blogs to an audience through RSS feeds (“Real Simple Syndication”—a web format used to publish frequently updated content). People bring their offline interests to the blogosphere, just as they do to other communications media, writing about their lifestyles and political interests. The exchanges that occur between the real and virtual worlds are mediated by structures of social relevance, that is, how well experiences in one sphere relate to interests and concerns in the other (Schutz, 1970). Despite the potential of the Internet and other CMC technologies to enhance democracy, we would do well to heed U.S. media critic Robert McChesney’s reminder that, historically, the development of new communications technologies was always met with an enthusiasm that was later tempered by processes of commodification. Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Ltd.

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