1. AP European History Test Review Part Four Congress of Vienna through Imperialism

2. THE NINETEENTH CENTURY zA Time of change, the Nineteenth century saw the transformation from the Napoleonic period to the modern world. zIt began with the defeat of Napoleon and ended with an industrialized Europe with new political alliances & great influence in most parts of the world.

3. The Congress of Vienna zPurposes included: ydivision of the spoils of war yproduction of a settlement to return Europe, as closely as possible to the way it was before the French revolution ypromotion of conservatism & suppression of liberalism & divisive nationalism zBig 4 = England (Castlereagh), Russia (Alexander I), Prussia (Fred. Will. II), & Austria (Metternich).

4. Concerns of the Congress zBalance of Power (checks & balances): Wanted to make sure no single power could dominate Europe as France had done. zLegitimacy: wanted the restoration of monarchies & the return of all original lands (baseline = 1792) zIndemnity: France paid 700 million Francs to support an army of occupation until 1820.

5. Alliance Systems zThe Concert of Europe consisted of several alliances with the purpose of maintaining the conservative settlement designed by the COV. zThese included: yThe Holy Alliance yThe Quadruple Alliance (Eng, Austria, Prussia, and Russia) yThe Quintuple Alliance (Quadruple alliance joined by France in 1818)

6. Results of the Congress of Vienna zConcert of Europe put down revolts in Italy & Spain in the early 1820’s, but broke down by 1825 due to the fact that England was not as conservative as the rest of the members & pulled out. zEnforced conservatism was challenged by the forces of liberalism, & nationalism. zConservative settlements later led to the revolutions of 1848.

7. The Revolutions of 1830 zSpain: 1814--restoration of King Ferdinand VII: revived the old regime & the inquisition. z1820: Ferdinand ordered his army to attack & recapture former Sp. Colonies in Latin Am., & the army mutinied. zFerdinand had to restore the Napoleonic constitution of 1812. z1823: Louis VIII sent troops to restore Ferd VII after another revolt.

8. Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Naples) z1815: Restoration of Bourbon King Ferdinand I: very corrupt & conservative. z1820: Carbonari revolted against king & forced him to accept a more liberal constitution. zAustria sent an army to Italy to restore the king’s power

9. Greece zGreece revolted against Turkish control in 1821, causing a civil war. z1828, Russia, Britain, and France joined the war on the side of the Greeks. z1829: Treaty of Adrianople: Greek independence & Russia gets part of modern-day Romania.

10. Decembrist Uprising z2 secret revolutionary groups were operating in Russia by the early 1800’s. yNorthern Society: wanted a constitutional monarchy ySouthern Society: wanted a democratic republic zWhen Alex I died, liberals wanted his brother Constantine to rule, but he abdicated in favor of his younger brother, Nicholas. z1825: revolutionaries rioted & were crushed. zAlex set up a very repressive police state.

11. France (1830) zLouis XVIII died in 1824, bringing Charles X to the throne. zCharles was extremely conservative, and had been the leader of the “ultras” before he became king. zUnder his leadership, the Catholic church was given control of Catholic schools & a premier was appointed without legislative approval.

12. Opposition in France zIn 1830, the Chamber of Deputies cast a vote of “no confidence” in the king, and the king disbanded the legislature and called for new elections. zNew elections brought a more liberal Chamber, and the king passed the July Ordinances (4 ordinances) in response.

13. Revolution zThe July Ordinances dissolved the Chamber, censored the press, restricted voting to only a few rich nobles, and censored freedom of speech & assembly. zIn response, rioters filled Paris streets and revolution broke out. zLouis Philippe became the new king of France & ruled until 1848. yHe extended the right to vote to the upper middle- class.

14. More Revolutions zRevolutions also occurred in 1830 in Belgium, Poland, parts of Italy, and parts of Germany. yBelgium broke away from the Dutch Republic & set up a Constitutional monarchy. yPoland lost its constitution & Polish cities were occupied by Russian troops yRevolutions in Parma, Modena, and the Papal States were all put down. ySeveral small German states got constitutions in 1830, but Austria & Prussia made no reforms

15. The Revolutions of 1848 zRevolutions occurred in almost every country on the European continent, but few were successful in gaining liberalization. zAims of most 1848 revolutions were: yconstitutionalism yliberalism yrepublicanism ygreater democracy ynationalism

16. France: The February Revolution z1846-1848: bad harvests & depression led to unemployment & high food prices which hurt the lower classes badly. zWith the introduction of machinery into French factories, more jobs were lost, and industrial profits began to fall. zAs a result, the working class and the middle class were unhappy with Louis Philippe.

17. Utopian Socialism zUtopian socialists called attention to the plight of the poor in France and the necessity of government action to bring relief. zLouis Blanc planned to end unemployment by creating “National workshops” (social workshops). zOpposition from many sources supported an end to the monarchy.

18. Revolution zOpposition groups all agreed that they wanted the resignation of Louis’ chief advisor, Guizot. zFeb. 21st, a revolutionary banquet was held without approval, and when the government tried to stop it, the rioters took to the streets and Guizot was forced to flee. zThe king then abdicated.

19. France in Chaos zDisputes over who would rule France came to a head, with the middle class wanting protection of property, the workers wanting economic relief, and the nobility wanting a monarchy. zThe workshops created by Louis Blanc were a failure, and unemployment continued to rise. zAfter riots in June, General Cavaignac made France a temporary dictatorship.

20. Constitution of the 2nd Republic zNov. 1848: The new constitution did the following: yUniversal manhood suffrage yBill of Rights (speech, press, religion, assembly, property) yrejected socialism yUnicameral legislature with three-year terms yPresidency with a four year term. zLouis Napoleon was elected President of France in Dec. 1848, and became emperor in 1851 (Napoleon III).

21. Germany in 1848 zIntellectuals and professionals in many German states revolted in 1848 in an attempt to gain the liberal concessions that were previously promised by Prussian King Frederick William IV. yPrior to 1848, he had created the Zollverein (German Customs Union) to remove internal tariffs and tolls and to stimulate German commerce. yThe Zollverein united many German states, economically.

22. Revolution in Berlin zGerman liberals revolted and forced Fred Will to accept their demands. zThe king called a constitutional assembly, the Frankfurt Assembly, to strengthen the German confederation. They couldn’t agree on which German states to include or whether to have a republic or a monarchy. zAustria opposed any sort of constitution for the confederacy.

23. The Frankfurt Assembly zThe assembly finally wrote a constitution which called for a liberal constitutional monarchy. zWhen they offered the crown of Germany to Frederick, he refused to take it, saying he “wouldn’t accept the imperial crown from the gutter.” zThis ended the assembly and any hopes of liberal reform. zOnly lasting result: more states joined the Zollverein.

24. Italy in 1848 zItaly was divided into several small states, most of whom were occupied by foreign powers. zItalian nationalists wanted unification and formed secret societies such as the carbonari and Mazzini’s Young Italy. zThe “risorgimento” (revival of nationalist pride ) drove the revolution of 1848.

25. Italy in 1848 zSpring 1848: revolts broke out in the Papal states, Tuscany, Naples, and Sardinia, and these rulers granted liberal constitutions. zLombardy-Venetia revolted against Austria and Naples, Sardinia, and the Pope sent troops to help them. In the process, Sardinia annexed L- V, Parma, and Modena. zOther Italian states then withdrew their support of LV and Austria regained control.

26. The Roman Republic zWhen it appeared that Austria was going to defeat any chance at Italian unification and independence, radical revolution broke out in Rome & Sardinia. zGaribaldi & Mazzini ousted the Pope & proclaimed a democratic republic in Rome. In Sardinia, the king was forced to continue fighting the Austrians. zThe Austrians defeated Sardinia, and Napoleon III sent troops to reinstate the Pope.

27. Austria in 1848 zThe Austrian empire included a large number of ethnic minorities within its borders. Their individual nationality was suppressed by the empire. zIn the “March Days,” revolts occurred in Italy, Hungary, Bohemia, & Austria itself.

28. Austria in 1848 zThe revolutions were led by a minority of intellectuals, students, and labor leaders and were not widely supported by the majority of the people. zThe only lasting result was the abdication of Metternich.

29. Hungary zIn Hungary, Louis Kossuth led a revolt in the Hungarian Diet which made Hungary autonomous while accepting the emperor as the king of Hungary. He outlawed serfdom, forced the nobility to pay taxes, and required public officials to speak Hungarian. zSince Kossuth continued to oppress Slavic minorities in Hungary, Russia helped Austria put down the Hungarian revolt.

30. THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION zThe industrial revolution began in England in the mid 18th century, but many of its effects were not felt on the continent until the 19th century. zIt was the widespread use of machinery that characterized the industrial revolution, because the output of products accelerated so enormously by the substitution of machines for human labor in manufacturing.

31. Causes of Industrialism zAvailability of capital due to growth of capitalism & trade. zPuritan work ethic and new attitudes toward change caused by the Enlightenment. zPopulation growth caused an increased need for goods. zEnclosure acts provided cheap labor & urbanization.

32. Industrial Rev. in England zBegan in England because: yMarkets for manufactured goods due to wealth of the upper and middle classes yplentiful supply of natural resources yplentiful supply of workers (Eng. Population doubled between 1700 & 1800). yRaw materials from its colonies ycapitalists with investment money yliberal government ready to further the interests of the capitalists

33. More Reasons zEnglish intellectuals urged a free trade policy. zFew guild restrictions zColonies for markets zNaval supremacy zEncouragement of inventions (patents, copyrights, etc). zSound banking systems

34. Advances in Production zTextile industry 1st to industrialize zNew methods of iron, coal, and steel production zNew sources of power (steam engine) zExpansion of communication & transportation (Railroads & canals & telegraph) zAgricultural revolution zFactory system

35. Textiles zLarge market for cotton cloth. Therefore, great efforts were made to increase the amount of cotton cloth produced in England. zInventions: yflying shuttle: increased speed of weaving ySpinning Jenny: spun cotton fiber faster yWater frame: spun cotton fiber quickly & produced a finer thread. ySpinning mule: combined frame & jenny ypower loom: wove automatically ycotton gin: separated cotton fiber from seeds

36. Advances zIron smelted with coal, not charcoal zSteam Engine (James Watt) powered factories zImproved roads, canals, & steam locomotives ztelegraph & telephone zexpansion of banking & credit systems zOnly the bank of England could issue bank notes

37. French and German Industrialization zIn the early 19th century, industrialization spread to France. zFrance experienced its greatest period of industrial growth from 1850 - 1870. zGermany was hampered by guild restrictions, poor transportation, & lack of unification. zIndustrialization began by mid century, but was greatest after 1871.

38. Social Changes zPopulation growth: British population tripled between 1800 & 1900. zUrbanization led to more influence by the middle class & eventually the working class. zBreakdown of the family as cottage industries are replaced by the factory system. zLanded aristocracy threatened by the growing wealth & power of the industrialists.

39. Labor zWorkers received low, often subsistence, wages & worked in often unsafe conditions. zMen, women, and children often worked 16-18 hour days. zWages rose on the average of about 2% per year in the 1800’s in industrial jobs in England.

40. Labor Conditions zUrban workers followed three methods to improve their conditions: yViolence: some sabotaged machines & killed bosses, but this was not successful in changing conditions. yUnions: Unions were initially outlawed in England & France, but were finally successful by the late 1800’s yPolitical Agitation: Chartism & general agitation led to reforms, such as the factory act, the mines act, and the 10 hours bill.

41. The Classical Economists zAdam Smith: 1776: The Wealth of Nations: ybelieved that individuals working for their own self-interest would benefit the economy better than mercantilist policies. y“Invisible hand” of supply & demand should dictate prices & production. yLaissez-faire economics (early capitalism)

42. Economists zThomas Malthus: Essay on Population yBelieved that the population grew geometrically, while the food supply grew arithmetically, thus eventually leading to famine &/or war which would check population growth. yBelieved that the poor should limit their offspring if they wanted to improve their standard of living.

43. Economists zDavid Ricardo: The Principles of Political Economy: y“Iron law of wages:” there is a point where the market wage will constantly tend to approach the natural wage. If you pay a market wage below the natural wage (what workers need to survive), they will die off & a smaller labor pool can demand higher wages. If you pay a market wage significantly more than the natural wage, they will have more kids & their standard of living will drop. yBelieved in laissez-faire capitalism.

44. Economists zJeremy Bentham: Utilitarianism: yBelieved in laissez-faire economics but wanted policies which would effect the “greatest good for the greatest number.” yBelieved that if an individual harmed the common good by acting in his own self- interest, then the government should step in. yAlso believed that government could step in to pay for research & development & education.

45. Liberalism zJohn Stuart Mill: On Liberty; Principles of Political Economy. yMill’s Principle: Persons should have complete freedom of action, speech, etc. as long as their actions do not harm others. If they cause harm, then the gov’t should stop them. yConcerned about the tyranny of the majority.

46. Mill, continued zMill served in Parliament for a time and championed the following causes: ywomen’s suffrage ythe right of workers to organize into unions ylabor legislation to improve working conditions yuniversal suffrage (for all men & women over 21) yuniversal education yequal political/economic rights for women yproportional representation.

47. Early Socialists zSocialism can be defined as an economic system in which the means of production, exchange, and distribution are owned by the state rather than private individuals. zDesigned to abolish the abuses of capitalism by promoting collectivization. zSocialism ranged from strictly economic reform in the context of a democratic government to the extreme of Marxism.

48. Utopian Socialists zUtopian socialists offered no practical plan for achieving the ideal societies they envisioned and thought industrialists would support their ideas as soon as they saw their merit. zSocialism developed independently in France and England in the 19th century.

49. Utopian Socialists zSaint-Simon: (1760-1825): French: yAdvocated the abolition of private property and the development of an industrial state under the direction of a board of directors made up of scientists & skilled businessmen who would work for the betterment of all people, including the working class. yHad little practical impact zPierre Proudhon: French: “Property is Theft.” Influenced Karl Marx.

50. Utopian Socialists zCharles Fourier (1772-1837): French: yCalled for a society made up of small cooperative communities called phalanxes in which economic competition would be eliminated & all work done voluntarily. yPeople in his society would live in communal dwellings. yToo idealistic & failed in his attempts.

51. Utopian Socialists zRobert Owen: (1771-1858): successful English industrialist yBelieved that environmental factors influenced people and thought factories and communities needed to be clean, and provide decent wages. yWanted to outlaw child labor & provide mandatory education. yCreated a model cotton mill in Scotland, but failed in his attempts in Indiana. yDid a lot to popularize the need for social reform in England.

52. Utopian Socialists zLouis Blanc: French: (1811 - 1882) organized a socialist political party to achieve socialist measures in France. yBelieved that governments have the duty of providing workers with farms and shops to replace privately owned ones. He called these national workshops. yThese would be run by the workers for their own good. yWanted democratic government. yUndermined by the provisional gov’t in 1848.

53. Christian Socialists zThese people wanted to apply the principles of the Christian religion to the quest for social & economic reform. zPope Leo XIII: wrote Rerum Novarum in 1891 yurged fair treatment of workers & the need for social reform. yurged the foundation of Christian labor unions.

54. Christian Socialists zCharles Kingsley: (1819 - 1875) Novelist yWanted to end sweatshops yStressed the importance of boycotts in obtaining relief from capitalists abuses yStressed the need for brotherly love as the basis of all reform yUrged the British Parliament to pass social legislation to help the working class.

55. Marxism zFounded by Marx & Engels, it was a militant form of socialism which is often called Communism. zMarx and Engels asserted their ideas in The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Das Kapital (1867). zDiffered from other forms of socialism because it called for a revolutionary overthrow of the existing system. No accommodation.

56. Marxist Ideas zHistory must be interpreted economically. yEconomic factors shape the institutions of civilization, such as religion & politics. zSurplus Value: the value of all commodities is a result of the labor put into them. yIf a worker gets paid less than the labor he put into a product, he is being exploited. z“History is a constant series of class struggles” between the exploited & the exploiters.

57. More Marxist Ideas zDialectic: Thesis, Antithesis, Synthesis. yBelieved this process would continue inevitably until Communism was established. Then there would be no more opposition to the new system. zMaterialism: yBelieved in no God or divine presence and believed that all things happened mechanically with no divine guiding principle. zMarxism is also called Dialectical Materialism.

58. More Marxist Ideas zCapitalism is a necessary step in the eventual development of Communism. zRevolution in which the proletariat overthrows the bourgeoisie is inevitable but must be led by Marxist intellectuals called the “vanguard of the revolution.” zA temporary “dictatorship of the proletariat must be established after the revolution to reorder society.

59. More Marxist Ideas zMarx envisioned a situation in which workers all over the world would eventually overthrow their existing conditions and create Communist societies. zWhen this had occurred, he believed there would be no need for governments and predicted the “withering of the state.” zBelieved in the principle “From each acc. to his ability, to each acc. to his need.”

60. Socialist Parties Pre-WWI zFirst International: founded in 1864 in London: followed Marxist ideas, but finally disbanded. zGerman Social Democratic Party: advocated many Marxist ideas & gained a large number of seats in the Reichstag. zFabian Society: Britain: formed to spread socialist ideas. Its members later formed the modern Labor party.

61. Anarchism zAimed at destroying governments ASAP usually by the use of force because governments always restricted human liberty. yPeter Kropotkin: Russian: wanted to abolish private property & gov’t non-violently. Wanted a loose communistic social organization to replace the government.

62. Anarchism zMikhail Bakunin: Russian: yorganized groups all over Europe to stage an international revolution to destroy the gov’ts of Europe. yAdvocated terrorist acts until the time was right for a general strike/revolution. yResponsible for the assassinations of a number of world leaders. yWanted a socialist economy established.

63. 19th Century British Problems zThe Landed Aristocracy still monopolized political power due to voting restrictions (10% of adult males could vote in England in 1848). zRotten Boroughs kept industrial centers from being fairly represented (Manchester had no representatives at all in 1800) zNo secret ballot

64. More Problems zNo secret ballots zProperty & religious qualifications restricted the right to hold political office. zNo salaries for the members of the House of Commons zThe House of Lords could block all legislation passed by the House of Commons except for revenue bills.

65. British Reforms z1820’s: Combination Code (that suppressed unions) was repealed & the Criminal Code was reformed. z1829: Catholic Emancipation Act: permitted Catholics to hold an elected public office. z1833: Slavery abolished in the British Empire

66. The Great Reform Bill of 1832 zSponsored by the Whigs, this bill yielded to the demands of the middle class. zIt did the following: yExtended suffrage to most of the middle class and small land owners, but still denied it to most urban workers & peasants. yProvided for redistricting to eliminate rotten boroughs yGave more power to the House of Commons zAfter being threatened with the creation of new Whig peers, the House of Lords passed the bill.

67. Chartism zOrganized in the 1830’s by city workers to achieve political reforms and improve their living conditions. zThe charter demanded: yUniversal manhood suffrage yNo more property qualifications for Parliament yEqual electoral districts ySecret ballot yAnnual Parliamentary elections ySalaries for Parliament

68. Chartism zChartists pushed their demands throughout the 1840’s and the movement culminated with a march of 50,000 protesters in 1848. zAlthough Parliament refused to give in to Chartist demands (as a whole package), most of their demands were met through reform legislation, and the movement died out.

69. More Reforms zGreat Reform Bill of 1867: reduced property qualifications so that most urban workers could vote ySponsored by Benjamin Disraeli, the Conservative Party leader who wanted to take credit for the reform. zBallot Act of 1872: secret ballot introduced zReform Bill of 1884: extended suffrage to most peasants. ySponsored by the Liberal Leader, Gladstone.

70. More Reforms zThe Parliament Act of 1911: Weakened the House of Lords by giving it only a temporary veto over bills passed in the House of Commons. yRevenue bills could be delayed only 30 days. yAll other bills could be delayed up to two years. zReform Bill of 1918: Extended Suffrage to British women over 30 years of age. zReform Bill of 1928: Women over 21 could vote.

71. British Economic/Social Reforms zNew Poor Law of 1834: created poor houses & put able-bodied paupers to work. (hated by the poor) z1846: Corn Laws repealed zFactory Act of 1819: banned employment of children under 9 in cotton mills & limited older kids to 12 hours per day.

72. More Reforms zFactory Act of 1833: Applied to all textile mills. yBanned employment of kids under 9 yEstablished a 9 hour day for kids 9-13 and a 12 hour day for kids 13-18. yProvided inspection to enforce the law. zMines Act of 1842: banned women and children under 10 from working in mines. zTen Hour Law of 1847: established a ten hour day for women and children in textile mills.

73. More Reforms z1870: Education Act: Free public elementary education was provided for all children, and England’s educational standards were upgraded. zNational Insurance Act of 1911: required employers to provide health and unemployment insurance to all workers.

74. The Irish Problem zThe Irish people were bitter toward the British for the following reasons: yThey were forced to support the Anglican church yEnglish absentee landlords controlled most Irish land and charged high rents. They evicted peasants who couldn’t pay. yThe English did little to relieve the misery created by the crop failures of the 1840’s (the potato famines) zThe Irish wanted home rule but didn’t get it in the 19th century.

75. France z1852: Napoleon III declares the establishment of the 2nd French Empire. zHis domestic policies included: yVast public works projects (canals, roads, RR) yRemoved legal barriers to trade unions yEncouraged industrialization and promoted economic prosperity, gaining the support of the middle class.

76. French Foreign Policy zNapoleon III followed these policies: yStopped Russian aggression in the Crimean War. yAnnexed Algiers yHelped Piedmont gain independence from Austria, but stationed troops in Rome to protect the Pope yInvaded Mexico in 1862 and set up the Austrian archduke Maximilian as King. After the US Civil War ended, the US forced French withdrawal.

77. Problems in the French Empire zNationalists protested after the humiliation of France in the Maximilian affair. zCatholics were mad because Napoleon had helped Piedmont zRepublicans were made that they didn’t have a democratic form of government. zWorkers were striking due to poor wages & working conditions.

78. French Revolution of 1870 z1870: Napoleon plunged France into war with Prussia in hopes of restoring the glory of France (remember the Ems Dispatch) zAfter the defeat of France in the Franco- Prussian war, revolts broke out & Napoleon III abdicated. zA provisional gov’t was formed, but it was unsuccessful because it chose to stay in the war.

79. The Third French Republic zDelegates in the new National Assembly ranged from various monarchists to radical republicans. zBecause of the dissension between different factions of monarchists, the Republicans passed a series of laws which collectively became the Constitution of the Third French Republic. yThe republic began in 1871 and ended in 1940.

80. Problems of the Third French Republic zBoulanger Affair: a monarchist general (Boul) who wanted to become dictator, he was discredited by the government. zDreyfus Affair: a Jewish Republican army captain was framed by monarchist army officers for treason. His unfair trial discredited the monarchist faction of the government. yZola wrote “J’accuse” in his defense

81. Italian Unification zAfter 1815, Italy was disunited and consisted of the following parts: yKingdom of the 2 Sicilies (Naples) controlled by Austria in Southern Italy yPapal States and Austrian-controlled Parma, Tuscany, and Modena in North-central Italy yAustrian-controlled provinces of Lombardy + Venetia and the free Kingdom of Sardinia- Piedmont in North Italy.

82. Italian Unification zNationalist movements to unite Italy in 1848 were a failure but nationalists did not give up. zSeveral methods to unite Italy existed: yMazzini: Romantic Republicanism “Young Italy” yGaribaldi: Red Shirts yCavour: Moderate Liberalism: wanted a constitutional monarchy under the king of Sardinia-Piedmont.

83. The Process of Unification zCavour was the mastermind of the successful unification of Italy. zHe did the following things: yStrengthened the army and economy of Sardinia-Piedmont (he was its Prime Minister) yCreated an alliance with Napoleon III at the Plombiers conference. yProvoked war with Austria and forced Austria to ceded Lombardy to Sardinia-Piedmont.

84. More Steps in the Unification Process zThe Duchies of Parma, Tuscany, and Modena successfully revolted against Austria and united with Sardinia-Piedmont. zGaribaldi did the following: yInvaded Naples in 1861, after securing Sicily. yHe won many battles in S. Italy and then turned the region over to King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia- Piedmont. zCavour invaded the Papal States, taking over everything except Rome.

85. Italian Unification z1861: Victor Emmanuel II becomes King of Italy. zTransformismo policy followed z1871: Rome & Venetia annexed by Italy zGovernment consisted of a limited monarchy with a bicameral legislature consisting of a senate (appointed for life by the king) and a chamber of deputies (elected by the middle & upper classes).

86. Problems in Italy zItaly was poor with a large illiterate population. zMost people were ignorant of democratic ideas & did not participate in government. zThe Pope condemned the new gov’t and decreed that Catholics should not participate in it. zThe north was more developed than the south and the 2 regions had little in common, economically and socially.

87. Solving Italy’s Problems zIndustry and trade were fostered by the government. zImproved agricultural methods were developed zThe Italian gov’t encouraged emigration to the US to ease over-population due to such a high birthrate. zItalians paid high taxes to support a growing army & navy.

88. German Unification zUnification was supported by the growing middle class & city-workers. (Their influence was growing due to industrialization). zCompetition between Austria & Prussia further complicated the unification process. zA turning point in Germany occurred when King William I became the king of Prussia in 1861.

89. German Unification zWilliam began to strengthen the Prussian army, but liberals in Parliament opposed the spending of so much money. zWilliam appointed Otto von Bismarck as chancellor in 1862. yBismarck was a typical conservative junker who opposed liberalism yHe raised money for the army by disregarding the constitution and invoking medieval laws.

90. Bismarck zKnown as the “iron chancellor,” Bismarck accomplished the following: yCreated a powerful & efficient army y1864: Danish war: ended Danish control of Schlesswig & Holstein y1866: Austro-Prussian war (7 weeks war): established Prussian control of the German states yAnnexed the N. German Confederation

91. The Franco-Prussian War zRealizing that only a war with France would allow the annexation of the S. German states, Bismarck engineered a war with Napoleon III in 1870 through the editing of the Ems Dispatch. (“Realpolitik”) zGerman armies overwhelmed French armies in several months, and in the Treaty of Frankfurt, France ceded Alsace & Lorraine to Germany and paid reparations to Germany.

92. Unification zFollowing the Franco-Prussian War, the 4 Southern Catholic German provinces joined the Prussian dominated Germany. zIn 1871, the German Empire was declared with King William I as its Kaiser (emperor). zThis made Germany the most powerful nation on the continent, and its military power began to rival that of England.

93. German Government z25 states handled local matters zThe federal government handled national matters, such as defense and banking. zConstitution: bicameral legislature yBundesrat: 58 reps from member states yReichstag: 397 members elected by universal manhood suffrage. yBundesrat could only introduce legislation, and Reichstag could only reject it.

94. German Government zThe executive power rested in the hand of the emperor who commanded the army & navy, & appointed gov’t ministers. zChancellor: as chief minister, the chancellor was the prime advisor to the emperor and held a huge amount of governing power.

95. Accomplishments of Bismarck zConsolidation of the German Empire: ycreated a uniform currency, and legal code. zTried to suppress the Catholics in the South yCatholics organized the Center Party to oppose certain policies of the central gov’t, & Bismarck resented them because of their ties to the Catholic Church y Bismarck passed a series of laws to restrict the church (restricting education & clergy) and the KULTURKAMPF resulted. yEventually, Bismarck backed down.

96. Other Actions of Bismarck zTried to suppress the socialists: ySocialists appealed to urban workers who resented low pay and bad working conditions. yBismarck tried to suppress them forcibly in 1878 with anti-socialist laws, but this failed. yBy the 1880’s, Bismarck began to undermine them by supporting social legislation to gain the support of the workers. yThese programs included unemployment insurance & workers’ comp., and social security payments for retired Germans.

97. German Policies z1888: William II (defender of divine right) became king and Bismarck remained the chancellor, until he was dismissed by William. zWilliam II did the following: yBuilt up a strong army & navy yEncouraged industry & commerce yEncouraged imperialism and annexation

98. Austria-Hungary zAlthough Emperor Francis-Joseph tried to solve the problems of the empire, they were too great for any one ruler to solve. zProblems faced by the empire included: yThe great number of national minorities which were living in the empire yOver-extension of the empire into areas, such as Italy yFailure to compete with the growing power of Prussia.

99. Developments Before 1867 z1850: Suspended the Constitution and attempted to develop a more centralized administration of the empire (Bach System) z1855: Concordat with the Catholic Church z1859: Austria fared badly in the Crimean war and the war with France & Piedmont. z1861: October Diploma/February Patent: attempted to rule Hungary dictatorially.

100. Dual Monarchy zRevolts occurred in the Hungarian part of the empire between 1861 & 1867. z1867: Ausgleich: yCreated a Dual Monarchy (Austro-Hungarian empire) yMade the Hungarians (Magyars) dominant over other nationalities in their region yHungarians recognized the emperor and accepted common policies for finances & foreign policy. yHungary could make its own local laws. zAustria faced many revolts between 1860 & 1914

101. Russia in the 19th Century zRussian society remained semi-feudal and backward, with much popular discontent. zRussia remained isolated from Western culture and did not modernize. zOppression & censorship increased and the government was inefficient. zCzars were anti-liberal zRussia was weak internationally & began to lose foreign wars (Crimean, Russo-Japanese)

102. Nicholas I (1825-55) zDictatorial ruler who stood for strong nationalism, autocracy, and religious orthodoxy. zHe did the following: yExpanded the royal bureaucracy yPublished a new legal code yFostered industry and Railroads yEnforced strict censorship with secret police yHad strong control over the military yLost the Crimean War yPut down a Polish revolt

103. Alexander II (1855-81) zA conservative reformer, who abolished serfdom in 1861. zZemstvo Laws: created local assemblies to solve local problems in 1864. zAs reform led to radical demands, many groups began to plot and carry out terrorist acts. z1881: Alexander was assassinated.

104. Nicholas II (1881-1917) zIndustrial progress occurred during his reign, but urban & rural conditions remained miserable and the population was on the verge of revolution. (Witte z1905: Russia lost the Russo-Japanese war. z1905: Revolution occurred which included the Bloody Sunday massacre. yThe czar was forced to accept the October Manifesto which created the Duma.

105. Nicolas, continued zNicholas failed to uphold his promises made in the Oct. Manifesto and instead promoted more conservative policies under his chief agricultural advisor, Stolypin. yStolypin was assassinated by rebels zThree major groups of revolutionaries existed in Russia at the turn of the century: Social Democrats (Marxists), Cadets, and Social Revolutionaries

106. The 19th Century Intellectual Revolution zThe liberal nature of society, during the Victorian era, encouraged scientific and intellectual experimentation and discovery. zAdvances in Astronomy progressed when better telescopes were perfected. zBy the late 19th century, Lavoisier, Priestly, and Dalton all made advances in chemistry and new elements were being discovered.

107. Intellectual Developments zAdvances in physics included the following: ydiscovery of the law of conservation of energy ydiscovery of how to analyze the spectrum yFaraday developed the generator to produce electricity continuously (Electro-magnetism) yEdison invented the incandescent lamp yMotors were developed, thus providing a source of power from electricity.

108. Medical Developments zAdvances in medicine included the following: y1796: Jenner discovered how to immunize people against smallpox yLister introduced antiseptics yAnesthetics (ether) were introduced yPasteur promoted the germ theory & bacteriology yKoch also promoted the germ theory and isolated the germ that causes tuberculosis

109. More Medical Developments zRoentgen discovered the use of x-rays. zNew medical instruments were created in factories zVitamins were discovered & used to combat scurvy zAntibiotics were discovered & in 1928, Fleming discovered penicillin.

110. Scientific Developments zAtomic Developments included: y1905: Albert Einstein advanced the theory of relativity which modified Newton’s laws. yMarie & Pierre Curie, Ernest Rutherford, Sir James Chadwick, and Enrico Fermi all made discoveries about the structure of atoms and radiation.

111. The Theory of Evolution zCharles Darwin and Sir Alfred Wallace simultaneously developed the theory of evolution, but Darwin is famous, because he was the first to publish the idea. zIn his works, The Origin of the Species (1859) and The Descent of Man (1871), Darwin held that the existing animals and plants (including man) have evolved during millions of years from simpler forms of life.

112. Darwin, continued zDarwin also held that forms of life are constantly changing, and that new forms of life are coming into existence all of the time. zHe claimed that life was a constant struggle for existence, with only the strongest, most adaptable species surviving. yHe called this process Natural Selection or the Survival of the Fittest.

113. Effects of Darwinism zDarwin’s ideas were met with a storm of protest, especially from religious circles. zSocial Darwinism: other people, such as Herbert Spencer, tried to apply Darwin’s evolutionary ideas to man and society. ySpencer stated that only the strongest, most fit, humans should survive, and thus, he attacked social welfare measures, such as shielding the poorer (and inferior) people from starvation, etc. yThis justified the attitudes of many industrialists.

114. Other Effects of Darwinism zEugenics: (selective breeding of humans) zImperialism: colonizers were inherently better and had the right to exploit others. zElitism: some Social Darwinists saw superior people in all races & nationalities and urged the to band together so as to prevent their being submerged by the ignorant and inferior masses. yNietzsche: superman yExtreme racial elitism later applied by the Nazi party during the holocaust.

115. Literature zThe Victorian Era saw an explosion in literature which included the following: yDickens & Balzac: Realism yMany poets, incl. Tennyson, Arnold, the Brownings, and Dickenson yFlaubert: French realist with romantic tendencies yZola: political statements (‘J’accuse”) yPlaywrights: Ibsen, Shaw, Chekhov, etc.

116. Art zNew styles of art included the following: yImpressionism: Manet, Monet, etc. yCubism, Abstraction, and Surrealism were practiced by Picasso, Bralve, etc. yNaturalism in sculpture: Rodin (the Thinker), and bartholdi (Statue of Liberty) yWith the advent of structural steel, skyscrapers were built zMusic: Composers tried to make music emotionally appealing. (Wagner, Debussy,etc)

117. Imperialism zImperialism is the building up of an empire by a country. z“New Imperialism” (stimulated by the industrial revolution) began to occur after 1870 when Africa and Asia were consumed by the European powers.

118. Imperialism, continued zReasons for imperialism included: yThe need for cheap raw materials (cotton, rubber, oil, etc.) to meet the demands of industrialization. yThe need for markets for the sale of manufactured goods yThe provision of an outlet for surplus capital to be invested yThe concern for underdeveloped areas of the world yThe desire to convert natives to Christianity

119. Geography zImperialist nations included: Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Japan, and the US. zExploited areas included the Near East, Africa, & the Far East. yNear East: Previously dominated by Turkey & Persia, imperialist rivalries in this area (Balkans, etc.) were a catalyst in the outbreak of WWI and the Crimean War.

120. Geography, continued zAfrica: Rivalries here were very pronounced. yEarly 19th century: the interior was basically unknown. yPre 1850: France had claimed Algeria, and the Cape Colony was occupied. yPost 1850: Stories from missionaries and explorers, such as Stanley and Livingstone, stimulated interest in the wealth of the region and led to settlement and more exploration. yBy the end of the century, practically all of Africa was settled.

121. Africa zImportant developments in Africa included: y1882: British took over Egypt y1884: Belgium’s claim over the Congo was recognized y1890’s: France extended its control over most of NW Africa y1890’s: Britain claimed the Sudan and most of S. Africa yGermany and Italy were desperately trying to gain control of any African territories.

122. Independent Nations in Africa zOnly two independent nations remained in Africa at the turn of the century. yLiberia: a small republic founded by American anti-slavery groups for emancipated slaves yAbbysinia (Ethiopia): defeated the Italians at the battle of Adowa in 1896. This Italian defeat was a great humiliation and was later avenged by Mussolini.

123. The Far East zThe following things happened in the far east: yEuropean powers took over Burma, Malaya, Indo-china, and the islands of the East Indies. yBritain consolidated its control over India yChina was penetrated but not partitioned by imperialist forces who set up “spheres of influence.”

124. The British Empire zSouth Africa: yoriginally settled by Boers (Dutch) y1814: Britain takes over Cape Colony and trouble breaks out between the British & the Boers who fled NW to escape British rule. yThe Boers founded the Orange Free State and Transvaal and soon discovered gold in both of them. yBritish settlers tried to move in and take over the gold.

125. The British Empire, cont. zSouth Africa, continued: yThe Boers tried to restrict the political rights of the British & led to friction yEventually, Cecil Rhodes hatched a plan to take over both states, and when it failed, Britain declared war on the 2 states. yThe British won the “Boer war,” and eventually the 2 states were granted dominion status, after the other S. African states combined in to the Union of South Africa.

126. The British Empire zEgypt: The British wanted to control the Suez canal. yThe British took Egypt from the French after the canal was done (1870’s) y1876: Disraeli purchased 60% of the shares in the canal from Egypt y1877: Egypt became a British Protectorate, but a minority of French investors (who had built the canal) still held stock in the canal (until 1956).

127. The British Empire zBy 1900, Britain controlled 1/3 of Africa’s land area and over 1/2 of the African population. zBritain also controlled many islands in the Caribbean and had some colonies in Latin America. zOne of Britain’s most important colonies was India.

128. India zAfter the Sepoy rebellion (1857), Britain transferred control of India from the Eng. East India Company to the Eng. Government. zThe English introduced many reforms: yroads, bridges, canals, and railroads ysanitation yhumane laws ytelegraph ypostal service

129. India zBritish rule was resented and many natives wished to expel English rule. zMany organizations were created to rebel against the British. yIn response, the British granted a limited self- rule in 1909, but this didn’t satisfy those who wanted complete independence. zIndia gained dominion status in 1947 under the leadership of Ghandi & Nehru.

130. Other British Territories zAfraid that they would revolt and be lost forever, Britain gradually granted self- government to other colonies, as well. yCanada: British N. American Act of 1867 granted dominion status to Canada yAustralia: received dominion status in 1900 yNew Zealand: received dominion status in 1907