1. Introducing Psychology and Research Methods
Chapter 1
Introducing Psychology and Research Methods

2. Module 1.1: Learning Objectives The Science of Psychology
Describe reasons for studying psychology and why it is considered both a science and a profession
Define psychology and behavior, differentiating between overt and covert behaviors
Describe how the search for empirical evidence sets psychology apart from “common-sense” beliefs and from other fields of study
Define the terms data, scientific observation, and research method
Explain why some topics in psychology are difficult to study
The primary Goals outlined in the APA Guidelines for the Undergraduate Major which are met in this module:
Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology- Students will demonstrate familiarity with the major concepts, theoretical perspectives, empirical findings, and historical trends in psychology
Goal 2: Research Methods in Psychology- Students will understand and apply basic research methods in psychology, including research design, data analysis, and interpretation
Goal 4: Application of Psychology- Students will understand and apply psychological principles to personal, social, and organizational issues

3. Module 1.1: Learning Objectives The Science of Psychology (Continued)
Describe each of the following research specialties in psychology: developmental, learning, personality, sensation and perception, comparative, biopsychology, cognitive, gender, social, cultural, evolutionary, and forensic
Explain why and how animals are used in research, defining the term animal model and listing ways in which psychological research may benefit animals
Explain the four goals of psychology

4. What Is Psychology?
Psychology
Psyche: Mind
Logos: Knowledge or study
Definition: The scientific study of behavior and mental processes
Behavior: Overt; i. e. , can be directly observed (crying)
Mental Processes: Covert; i. e. , cannot be directly observed (remembering)

5. Empiricism: The Goals
To measure and describe behaviors
To gather empirical evidence: information gained from direct observation and measurement
To gather data: Observed facts
To use scientific observation: Empirical investigation that is structured so that it answers questions about the world

6. FIGURE 1.1. Results of an empirical study The graph shows that aggravated assaults in Los Angeles become more likely as air temperature increases This suggests that physical discomfort is associated with interpersonal hostility (Data from Simister & Cooper, 2005 ).

7. What Topics Do Psychologists Research?
Development:
Course of human growth and development
Learning:
How and why it occurs in humans and animals
Personality:
Traits, motivations, and individual differences

8. What Topics Do Psychologists Research? (Continued)
Sensation and Perception:
How we come to know the world through our five senses
Comparative Psychology:
Behavior of different species
Biopsychology:
How behavior is related to biological processes, especially activities in the nervous system

9. What Might a Psychologist Research? (Continued)
Cognition:
How people think
Gender:
Study differences between males and females and how they develop
Social Psychology:
Human social behavior

10. What Might a Psychologist Research? (Continued)
Cultural Psychology :
How culture affects human behavior
Evolution:
How our behavior is guided by patterns that evolved
Forensics:
How to apply psychological principles to legal issues

11. What Are the Goals of Psychology?
Description of Behaviors:
Naming and classifying various observable, measurable behaviors
Understanding:
The causes of behavior
Prediction:
Forecasting behavior accurately
Control:
Altering conditions that affect behaviors

12. Module 1.2: Learning Objectives Critical Thinking and the Scientific Method in Psychology
Define the term critical thinking
Describe the four basic principles which form the foundation of critical thinking
Define pseudo-psychology
Explain how it differs from psychology
Describe the pseudo-psychologies of palmistry, phrenology, graphology, and astrology
The primary Goals outlined in the APA Guidelines for the Undergraduate Major which are met in this module:
Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology- Students will demonstrate familiarity with the major concepts, theoretical perspectives, empirical findings, and historical trends in psychology
Goal 3: Critical Thinking Skills in Psychology- Students will respect and use critical and creative thinking, skeptical inquiry, and, when possible, the scientific approach to solve problems related to behavior and mental processes
Goal 5: Values in Psychology- Students will be able to weigh evidence, tolerate ambiguity, act ethically, and reflect other values that are the underpinnings of psychology as a discipline
Goal 9: Personal Development- Students will develop insight into their own and others’ behavior and mental processes and apply effective strategies for self-management and self-improvement

13. Module 1.2: Learning Objectives Critical Thinking and the Scientific Method in Psychology (Continued)
Explain why they continue to thrive even though they have no scientific basis
Explain the problem with using common-sense as a source of information
List and define the six steps of the scientific method
Define the terms hypothesis, operational definition, and theory
Explain the importance of publishing
List and describe the parts of a research report

14. Critical Thinking
Ability to analyze, evaluate, critique, and synthesize information
What would you expect to see if the claim were true?
Gather evidence relevant to the claim
Evaluate the evidence
Draw a conclusion
Oftentimes used in research

15. Four Basic Principles of Critical Thinking
Few truths transcend the need for empirical testing
Judging the quality of evidence is crucial
Authority or claimed expertise does not automatically make an idea true
Critical thinking requires an open mind

16. Pseudopsychologies
Pseudo means “false”; any unfounded “system” that resembles psychology and is NOT based on scientific testing
Phrenology:
Personality traits revealed by shape of skull and bumps on your head
Palmistry:
Lines on your hands (palms) predict future and reveal personality

17. Pseudopsychologies (Continued)
Graphology:
Personality revealed by your handwriting
Astrology:
The positions of the stars and planets at birth determine your personality and affect your behavior

18. More on Pseudopsychologies
Uncritical Acceptance:
Tendency to believe positive or unflattering descriptions of yourself
Fallacy of Positive Instances:
When we remember or notice things that confirm our expectations and forget the rest

19. The Barnum Effect
Barnum Effect:
Tendency to consider personal descriptions accurate if stated in general terms
Always have a little something for everyone; make sure all palm readings, horoscopes, etc. are so general that something in them will always apply to any one person!
E. g. , Miss Cleo

20. Proposing a hypothesis Gathering evidence/testing the hypothesis
The Scientific Method
Six Basic Elements
Making observations
Defining a problem
Operational definitions
Proposing a hypothesis
An educated guess that can be tested
Gathering evidence/testing the hypothesis
5 Publishing results
6 Building a theory

21. Scientific Theory
A system of ideas that interrelates facts and concepts, summarizes existing data, and predicts future observations
A good theory must be falsifiable
i .e. , operationally defined so that it can be disconfirmed

22. FIGURE 1.2. Operational definitions are used to link concepts with concrete observations Do you think the examples given are reasonable operational definitions of frustration and aggression? Operational definitions vary in how well they represent concepts For this reason, many different experiments may be necessary to draw clear conclusions about hypothesized relationships in psychology

23. FIGURE 1.3 Psychologists use the logic of science to answer questions about behavior Specific hypotheses can be tested in a variety of ways, including naturalistic observation, correlational studies, controlled experiments, clinical studies, and the survey method Psychologists revise their theories to reflect the evidence they gather New or revised theories then lead to new observations, problems, and hypotheses

25. Module 1.3: Learning Objectives History and Contemporary Perspectives
For each of these schools of psychology—structuralism, functionalism, behaviorism, Gestalt psychology, psychoanalytic, and humanism—answer each of the following questions: its founder, reasons it was founded, its goal or main focus, and its impact on modern psychology and/or possible use in psychotherapy
Identify notable events within the history of psychology
Describe the contribution of women to the early history of psychology and their representation in the field then and now
Explain the contemporary perspectives in psychology, including the concepts of eclectic, positive psychology, cultural diversity, cultural relativity, and social norms
The primary Goals outlined in the APA Guidelines for the Undergraduate Major which are met in this module:
Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology- Students will demonstrate familiarity with the major concepts, theoretical perspectives, empirical findings, and historical trends in psychology
Goal 3: Critical Thinking Skills in Psychology- Students will respect and use critical and creative thinking, skeptical inquiry, and, when possible, the scientific approach to solve problems related to behavior and mental processes
Goal 5: Values in Psychology- Students will be able to weigh evidence, tolerate ambiguity, act ethically, and reflect other values that are the underpinnings of psychology as a discipline
Goal 8: Sociocultural and International Awareness- Students will recognize, understand, and respect the complexity of sociocultural and international diversity
Goal 9: Personal Development- Students will develop insight into their own and others’ behavior and mental processes and apply effective strategies for self-management and self-improvement

26. History of Psychology: Beginnings
1879: Wundt set up first lab to study conscious experience in Germany
Systematically observed and measured various stimuli
Introspection:
Looking inward (i.e., examining and reporting your thoughts, feelings, etc. )

27. History of Psychology: Structuralism
Wundt’s ideas brought to the US by Tichener and renamed Structuralism
Structuralism:
School of thought concerned with analyzing sensations and personal experience into basic elements

28. History of Psychology: Functionalism
William James (American) wrote Principles of Psychology (1890)
Functionalism:
How the mind functions to adapt us to our environment
Functionalists admired Darwin and his theory of natural selection
Animals keep features through evolution that help them adapt to environments

29. Functionalism’s Effects on Modern Psychology
Animals brought into the study of psychology
Educational Psychology:
Study of learning, teaching, classroom dynamics, and related topics
Industrial Psychology:
Study of people at work

30. History of Psychology: Behaviorism
Psychology must study observable behavior objectively
John B. Watson studied relationship between stimuli and responses
Little Albert
B.F. Skinner studied animals almost exclusively
Believed actions controlled by punishments and rewards

31. History of Psychology: Cognitive Behaviorism
View that combines cognition and conditioning to explain behavior
Cognitive Behaviorists: Ellis and Bandura
Our thoughts influence our behaviors
Used often in treatment of depression

32. History of Psychology: Gestalt
Gestalt Psychology: “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts ”
Studied thinking, learning, and perception in whole units, not by analyzing experiences into parts
Influenced study of perception and personality
Key names: Wertheimer, Perls

33. FIGURE 1.4 The design you see here is entirely made up of broken circles
However, as the Gestalt psychologists discovered, our perceptions have a powerful tendency to form meaningful patterns Because of this tendency, you will probably see a triangle in this design, even though it is only an illusion Your whole perceptual experience exceeds the sum of its parts

34. History of Psychology: Freud
Psychoanalytic Perspective
Our behavior is largely influenced by our unconscious wishes, thoughts, and desires, especially sex and aggression
Freud among first to appreciate that childhood affects adult personality
Freud created psychoanalysis

35. Repression
Repression:
When memories, thoughts, or impulses are unconsciously held out of awareness
Recent research has hypothesized that our unconscious mind is partially responsible for our behaviors

36. History of Psychology: Neo-Freudians
New or recent—some of Freud’s students who broke away to promote their own theories
Less emphasis on sex and aggression
Key Names: Alfred Adler, Anna Freud (Freud’s daughter), Karen Horney, Carl Jung, Otto Rank, Erik Erikson

37. History of Psychology: Humanism
Key Names: Rogers and Maslow
Goal of psychology is to study unique aspects of the person
Focuses on human experience, problems, potentials, and ideals
Each person has innate goodness and is able to make free choices (contrast with Skinner and Freud)

38. Terms
Self-Image: Perception of our own body, personality, and capabilities
Self-Evaluation: Positive or negative feelings held toward one’s self
Frame of Reference: Mental perspective used to interpret events
Self-Actualization: Ongoing process of fully developing one’s personal potential

40. Women in Psychology’s Early Days
Mary Calkins:
Research on memory
1st woman president of American Psychological Association
Christine Ladd-Franklin:
Research on color vision
Margaret Washburn:
Published The Animal Mind (1908)

41. Psychology Today
Biopsychological Perspective:
All of our behavior can be explained through physiological processes
Study the brain and nervous system
Psychological Perspective:
Behavior is shaped by individual psychological processes
Includes behaviorism, cognitive behaviorism, cognition, humanism, and psychoanalysis

42. Psychology Today (Continued)
Sociocultural Perspective:
Behavior affected by social and cultural contexts
Cultural relativity:
Behavior must be judged relative to values of the culture in which it occurs
Social norms:
Rules that define acceptable and expected behavior

43. Positive Psychology
Study of human strengths, virtues, and optimal behavior
Looks at positive side of human behavior such as love, creativity, well-being, and optimal behavior

45. Module 1.4: Learning Objectives Psychologists and Their Specialties
Characterize the differences in training, emphasis, and sources of employment among psychologists, psychiatrists, psychoanalysts, counselors, and psychiatric social workers
Explain how the media often portrays psychologists
Discuss psychology as a career option, including the various specialties, such as clinical and counseling psychology, the “scientist-practitioner” model, the APA code of ethics, and the types of research (applied or basic) performed
The primary Goals outlined in the APA Guidelines for the Undergraduate Major which are met in this module:
Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology- Students will demonstrate familiarity with the major concepts, theoretical perspectives, empirical findings, and historical trends in psychology
Goal 4: Application of Psychology- Students will understand and apply psychological principles to personal, social, and organizational issues
Goal 9: Personal Development- Students will develop insight into their own and others’ behavior and mental processes and apply effective strategies for self-management and self-improvement
Goal 10: Career Planning and Development- Students will emerge from the major with realistic ideas about how to implement their psychological knowledge, skills, and values in occupational pursuits on a variety of settings

46. Many Flavors of Psychologists
Usually have master’s degree or doctorate
Trained in methods, knowledge, and theories of psychology
Clinical Psychologist:
Treats psychological problems or does research on therapies and mental disorders
Counseling Psychologist:
Treats milder emotional and behavioral disturbances

47. More Helping Professionals
Psychiatrists:
A medical doctor (M.D.)
Usually use medications to treat problems
Generally do not have extensive training in providing “talk” therapy
Psychoanalysts:
Receive additional training post-Ph.D. or M.D. at an institute for psychoanalysis

48. Some More Helping Professionals
Counselor:
Advisor who helps solve problems with marriage, school, and so on
Requires master’s degree
Psychiatric Social Workers:
Many have masters degrees and perform psychotherapy
Presently a very popular profession
Not all psychologists perform therapy!

49. FIGURE 1.5 (a) Specialties in psychology (APA, 2005) Percentages are approximate (b) Where psychologists work (APA, 2000) (c) This chart shows the main activities psychologists engage in at work (APA, 2000) Any particular psychologist might do several of these activities during a work week As you can see, most psychologists specialize in applied areas and work in applied settings

50. Module 1.5: Learning Objectives The Psychology Experiment
List and describe the three essential variables of the experimental method
Explain the nature and purpose of the control group and the experimental group in an experiment as well as the purpose of randomly assigning subjects to these two groups
Describe three areas of ethical concern in behavioral research
List the basic ethical guidelines for psychological researchers
Describe what a placebo is and why it is used in an experiment
Explain how the single-blind and double-blind experimental approaches control for the placebo effect and the experimenter effect, respectively
Discuss the self-fulfilling prophecy
The primary Goals outlined in the APA Guidelines for the Undergraduate Major which are met in this module:
Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology- Students will demonstrate familiarity with the major concepts, theoretical perspectives, empirical findings, and historical trends in psychology
Goal 2: Research Methods in Psychology- Students will understand and apply basic research methods in psychology, including research design, data analysis, and interpretation
Goal 3: Critical Thinking Skills in Psychology- Students will respect and use critical and creative thinking, skeptical inquiry, and, when possible, the scientific approach to solve problems related to behavior and mental processes
Goal 4: Application of Psychology- Students will understand and apply psychological principles to personal, social, and organizational issues
Goal 5: Values in Psychology- Students will be able to weigh evidence, tolerate ambiguity, act ethically, and reflect other values that are the underpinnings of psychology as a discipline

51. Experiments
To identify cause-and-effect relationships, we conduct experiments
Directly vary a condition you might think affects behavior
Create two or more groups of subjects, alike in all ways except the condition you are varying
Record whether varying the condition has any effect on behavior

52. Variables Independent Variable:
Condition(s) altered by the experimenter; experimenter sets their size, amount, or value; these are suspected causes for behavioral differences
Dependent Variable:
Demonstrates effects that independent variables have on behavior
Extraneous Variables:
Conditions that a researcher wants to prevent from affecting the outcomes of the experiment (e.g., number of hours slept before the experiment)

53. Groups
Experimental Group:
The group of participants that gets the independent variable
Control Group:
The group of participants that does NOT get the independent variable
Random Assignment:
Participant has an equal chance of being in either the experimental or control group

54. FIGURE 1.6 Elements of a simple psychological experiment to assess the
effects of music during study on test scores

56. Placebo
Placebo:
A fake pill (sugar), injection (saline), or condition
Placebos alter our expectations about our own emotional and physical reactions
Placebo Effect:
Changes in behavior that result from expectations that a drug or other treatment will have some effect
These expectancies then influence bodily activities

57. Experiment Types
Single Blind:
Only the subjects have no idea whether they get real treatment or placebo
Double Blind:
The subjects AND the experimenters have no idea whether the subjects get real treatment or placebo
Best type of experiment if properly set up

58. Experimenter Effects
Changes in behavior caused by the unintended influence of the experimenter
Robert Rosenthal (1973)
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy:
A prediction that leads people to act in ways to make the prediction come true

59. Does Marijuana Impair Memory?
PLAY VIDEO

60. Module 1.6: Learning Objectives Non-Experimental Research Methods
Explain the use of non-experimental methods of research
Describe naturalistic observation and its advantages and limitations, including the concepts of observer effect, observer bias, and anthropomorphic error
Define the term observation record
Describe a correlational study, its advantages and limitations, how a correlation coefficient is expressed and what it means, and why correlation does NOT demonstrate causation
Briefly describe the clinical method of research, or case study method, including when it is used and its advantages and limitations
Briefly describe the use of the survey method, including its advantages and limitations and the new use of Internet surveys
Define the terms population, representative sample, random selection, biased sample, and courtesy bias
The Goals outlined in the APA Guidelines for the Undergraduate Major which are met in this module:
Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology- Students will demonstrate familiarity with the major concepts, theoretical perspectives, empirical findings, and historical trends in psychology
Goal 2: Research Methods in Psychology- Students will understand and apply basic research methods in psychology, including research design, data analysis, and interpretation
Goal 3: Critical Thinking Skills in Psychology- Students will respect and use critical and creative thinking, skeptical inquiry, and, when possible, the scientific approach to solve problems related to behavior and mental processes
Goal 4: Application of Psychology- Students will understand and apply psychological principles to personal, social, and organizational issues
Goal 5: Values in Psychology- Students will be able to weigh evidence, tolerate ambiguity, act ethically, and reflect other values that are the underpinnings of psychology as a discipline

61. Naturalistic Observation
Observing a person or an animal in the natural environmental context
Provides descriptions of behavior
e.g., Jane Goodall

62. Naturalistic Observation Problems
Observer Effect:
Changes in behavior caused by an awareness of being observed
Observer Bias:
Occurs when observers see what they expect to see or record only selected details

63. Anthropomorphic Error
Attributing human thoughts, feelings, or motives to animals, especially as a way of explaining their behavior
e.g., “Java, my dog, is acting like that because he’s feeling depressed today.”

64. Correlational Studies
Determine the degree of a relationship between two events, measures, or variables
Correlation Coefficient:
Statistic ranging from –1.00 to +1.00;
the sign indicates the direction of the relationship
Closer the statistic is to –1.00 or to +1.00, the stronger the relationship
Correlation of 0.00 demonstrates no relationship between the variables

65. Correlations (Continued)
Positive Correlation:
Increases in one variable are matched by increases in the other variable
e.g. high school grades and college grades
Negative Correlation:
Increases in one variable are matched by decreases in the other variable
e.g. hours playing video games and grades
Correlation does not demonstrate causation:
Just because two variables are related does NOT mean that one variable causes the other to occur

66. FIGURE 1.9 The correlation coefficient tells how strongly two measures are related These graphs show a range of relationships between two measures, A and B If a correlation is negative, increases in one measure are associated with decreases in the other (As B gets larger, A gets smaller ) In a positive correlation, increases in one measure are associated with increases in the other (As B gets larger, A gets larger ) The center-left graph (“medium negative relationship”) might result from comparing anxiety level (B) with test scores (A): Higher anxiety is associated with lower scores The center graph (“no relationship”) would result from plotting a person’s shoe size (B) and his or her IQ (A) The center-right graph (“medium positive relationship”) could be a plot of grades in high school (B) and grades in college (A) for a group of students: Higher grades in high school are associated with higher grades in college

67. The Clinical Method
Case Study:
In-depth focus of all aspects of a single person
Natural Clinical Tests:
Natural events, such as accidents, that provide psychological data

68. FIGURE 1.10 Some of the earliest information on the effects of damage to
frontal areas of the brain came from a case study of the accidental injury of
Phineas Gage

69. Survey Method
Using public polling techniques to answer psychological questions
People in a representative sample are asked carefully worded questions
Representative Sample: Small group that accurately reflects a larger population
Population: Entire group of animals or people belonging to a particular category (e.g., all married women)

70. Some Problems
Internet Surveys:
Web based research
Low cost and can reach many people
Samples are not representative
Courtesy Bias:
Problem in research
A tendency to give “polite” or socially desirable answers

72. Module 1.7: Learning Objectives Psychology in Action: Psychology in the Media
List the suggestions from the textbook authors that will help you become a more critical reader of psychological information in the popular press
The Goals outlined in the APA Guidelines for the Undergraduate Major which are met in this module:
Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology- Students will demonstrate familiarity with the major concepts, theoretical perspectives, empirical findings, and historical trends in psychology
Goal 3: Critical Thinking Skills in Psychology- Students will respect and use critical and creative thinking, skeptical inquiry, and, when possible, the scientific approach to solve problems related to behavior and mental processes
Goal 4: Application of Psychology- Students will understand and apply psychological principles to personal, social, and organizational issues
Goal 5: Values in Psychology- Students will be able to weigh evidence, tolerate ambiguity, act ethically, and reflect other values that are the underpinnings of psychology as a discipline
Goal 9: Personal Development- Students will develop insight into their own and others’ behavior and mental processes and apply effective strategies for self-management and self-improvement

73. Separating Fact from Fiction
Be skeptical
Consider the source of information
Ask yourself, “Was there a control group?”
Look for errors in distinguishing between correlation and causation

74. Separating Fact from Fiction (Continued)
Be sure to distinguish between observation and inference (e.g., Robert is crying, but do we know why he is crying?)
Beware of oversimplifications, especially those motivated by monetary gain
Remember, “for example” is no proof!