History of Peace Operations Colonel Emmanuel Kotia, PhD Visiting Professor, Kennesaw State University, USA.

History of Peace Operations Colonel Emmanuel Kotia, PhD Visiting Professor, Kennesaw State University, USA

Introduction History of Peace Operations

Aims and Objectives Discuss the evolution of the concept of international security evolved after the collapse of the League of Nations leading to the formation of the UN after the second world war Examine the security dynamics and security provisions of UN peacekeeping operations Assess the merits and challenges of UN peace operations from the traditional era to present day operations Draw conclusions

The League of Nations

Pre-Peacekeeping Era: Overview World War I: Pause for thought about ‘global governance’ The League of Nations (LON) was conceived during WWI Established under Treaty of Versailles (1919) First permanent global, international security organization LON Covenant emphasized preventing war through: Collective security Disarmament Settlement of international disputes through negotiation and arbitration Main purpose of LON: …to promote international cooperation and to achieve peace and security. Organs: Assembly, Council, Permanent Secretariat (Geneva, Gen-Sec) Wings: Permanent Court of International Justice and ILO

UN Charter: Imperatives for Security Provisions Although the League of Nations (1919-1939…) dealt with a number of issues and conflicts Its key failure was its inability to prevent WWII Security remains a key imperative of success of the UN Consequently, UN pre-occupation with matters of security – major international armed conflict However, the UN lack of substantive provisions for other forms of armed conflict with ramifications for regional and international peace and security Explanation lies in the Preamble to UN Charter (Preamble): “ We the Peoples of the United Nations Determined…’to save succeeding generations form the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind…” Key Purpose: Maintenance of International Peace and Security

UN Charter: Key Purpose Key purpose (and Principles) of the UN: Save succeeding generations from the scourge of war… Reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights Establish conditions for the maintenance of justice and respite for obligations of treaties and other sources of international law Promote social progress and better living standards in large freedom TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL (P-5) GENERAL ASSEMBLY(192 ) SECRETARY COUNCIL (5-10 ) INERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE (15 ) ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL (54) SECRETARIAT

Security Framework:  A vision of collective security (Art 48,49,51: collective security, self- defence) …aggression against one member met by action by all  Engagement in broad spectrum of conflict resolution:  Preventive  Management  Resolution  Post-conflict measures Employment of range of tools (Art 42) General Assembly (UNGASR 377 (V)(3 Nov 1950) Original composition of 11- member UNSC: P5: Republic of China/People’s Republic of China? First elected rotational members:  Australia  Brazil  Egypt  Mexico  Netherlands and  Poland UN Charter: Security Provisions

Soviet occupation of Iran (1946): Albanian-led anti-Greek violence (1946-52): Indonesia-Netherlands conflict (1947-48): Issue of Palestine (1947-49) to date: Issue of Kashmir (1947-1950) to date Issue of Korea (1950-53) Suez Crisis (1956-57) Congo Crisis (1960-64) UN Charter: Early Security Test Cases and Triggers for ‘Peacekeeping’

Soviet occupation of Iran: Non-Soviet withdrawal by March 1946 Soviet Pledged withdrawal by May 1946  Albanian-led anti-Greek violence:  Issue raised by Soviet-Ukraine Aug 1946  US proposal for investigative commission vetoed by Soviet Union  Greek complaint to UNSC (involvement of Albania, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria)  UNSC deploy commission early 1947  Soviet disagreed with Commission’s report and vetoed resolutions  US refer case to UNGAS UNGAS decision (Oct 1947) to establish UN Special Commission on the Balkans (UNSCOB) UNSCOB to be composed of all 11 UNSC members Soviet, Polish non-participation Decline in support to Greek communists after greater Yugoslav independence (1946) UNSCOB terminated in 1951 Replaced (Jan 1952) by Balkan Sub- Commission of the standing Peace Observation Commisson UN Charter: 7+1 early security test cases and triggers for ‘peacekeeping’

 Indonesia-Netherlands conflict:  Indonesian independence Aug 1947 (after Japanese surrender)  Dutch attempt to regain control  UNSC called on parties to cease hostilities and accept arbitration  Consular Commission (Australia, Belgium, France, UK, US) deployed to observe ceasefire  Resumption of hostilities (late 1948); UNSC request to Consular Commission to deploy Milobs  Up to 63 Milobs established CFLs, supervised troop withdrawals, infiltrations, investigations of violations and damage to rubber plantations UN Charter: 7+1 early security test cases and triggers for ‘peacekeeping’

Issue of Palestine: British referral of LON mandate over Palestine to UN (Apr 1947) UNGAS appointed Special Committee propose partition Rejection by Palestinians and Arab States With increasing violence from 1947-48, UNSC establish UN Truce Commission for Palestine (Belgium, France, US) to supervise requested ceasefire UNGAS terminates Palestine Commission, appoints Un Mediator (14 May 1948) UK relinquishes mandate (15 May 1948); Jewish Agency proclaim state of Israel  Arabs invade in wake of British withdrawal  UNSC call for ceasefire within 36 hrs ignore, Establish 572-strong UNTSO (29 May 1948)  Resumption of fighting as Arab states (9 Jul) refuse to extend a 4-week truce  Compliance with UNSC order of ceasefire and threat of Chap VII action  UN Mediator (Count Bernadotee, and Senior French Observer) assassinated Sep 1948; Ralph Bunch appointed as acting Mediator  UNSC armistice (Nov 1948) accepted by all (Egypt Jan 1949)  Israeli bilateral agreements (Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan, Syria) early 1949 on partition  Admission of Israel to UN (11 May 1949) UN Charter: 7+1 early security test cases and triggers for ‘peacekeeping’

 Issues of Kashmir:  India and Pakistan indece (Aug 1947)  Status of Kashmir undetermined  Pakistani Muslims invade (Oct 1947)  Kashmir request for Indian assistance, joins India  India accuse Pakistan of threatening international peace (1 Jan 1948)  Pakistan argues illegality of Kashmiri accession to India: calls for UN-supervised plebiscite  Indian agreement conditional upon restoration of peace  UNSC establish UN Commission on India and Pakistan (UNCIP)(Jan 1948)  UNCIP deployment delayed for 6 months  UNCIP propose ceasefire (Aug 1948) and new proposals (Dec 1948)  Indo-Pakistani agreement to ceasefire (Jan 1949)  UNMOGIP implemented (Feb 1949)  Karachi Agreement (Jul 1949) establish CFL; disputes to be decided by the UNCIP Military Adviser  UNCIP terminated (1950)  UNMOGIP still in existence amidst resumption of hostilities (1965) and sporadic violence UN Charter: 7+1 early security test cases and triggers for ‘peacekeeping’

 Suez Crisis:  US announces non financing for Egypt’s Aswan Dam (Jul 1956)  Egypt (Abdel Nasser) nationalizes Suez Canal Company  France, UK takes case to UNSC (Sep 1956)  Egypt accuse France, Britain of endangering peace  Britain order Anglo-French invasion during process of UNSG mediation on 6-point agreement  Use of force rejected by US (Eisenhower)  Israel invades (parachutes) into Sinai (Oct 1956)  US request UNSC meeting  France and Britain threaten use of force, unless Egypt, Israeli 10-mile withdrawal from Canal  Egypt rejects ultimatum on sovereignty grounds  Anglo-French air force attack on Egyptian air bases (1 Nov 1949)  UNGASR (Dulles proposal) on withdrawal to 1949 Armistice boundaries, CFL  UNGAS establish UNEF I (5 Nov 1956), calls for British, French withdrawal  Israel pressured by US  UNEF (10 CCs, 3-6,000) withdrawal 1967 UN Charter: 7+1 early security test cases and triggers for ‘peacekeeping’

Hypothetical Periods o 1945-47:Pre-Origins Framework Origins(Pre-Cold War) o 1948-88:Origins, Evolution 1 st Generation (Cold War) o 1989-1991:Transition sub:2 nd Generation (Post-Cold War) o 1992-1994/95: Failures o 1996-1998:Caution, Decline sub: 3 rd Generation (Post Cold War UN Reforms) o 1999-2010R2P/PoC 2 nd Generation? o 2011 futureR2P/Peace sub:4 th Generation (Post Cold War Enforcement; Extra PoC)

UN Charter: Security Dynamics  Main Challenges  Security Dynamics: Early Post-WWII:  Mixed effects of factors of demise of League of Nations: 1945-39(46)  Cold War tensions (1945-1960) and mutual Super Power suspicions  Aversion to use of military forces  Failure to establish collective security force by 1947  Increasing arms race and incidence of proxy conflicts  Post-WWII decolonization (ME, Asia, Africa)  Compounding political, economic and social issues Key Purpose Maintenance of International Peace and Security…

Peacekeeping Theory: Broad Outline UN created as an instrument for maintaining international peace and security UN Charter establishes the framework for collective security for conflict resolution UN Charter vest this power in the UNSC, with a P5 lead, cooperative role (Art 1, 24, 39, 48) Security functions of the UN system within the framework of Chap VI, Chap VII, Chap V III Exercise of UNSC primary power affected by doctrine of ‘Great Power Unanimity’ (Veto) P5 dynamics inhibited doctrine of collective security Cold War rivalries and political stalemate inhabited creation of a UN force (Art 43, 45, 46) P5 interests/stalemate balanced by UNGAS decision (Suez Crisis UNEF 1- 1956-67; Congo Crisis: ONUC – 1960-64) Notable exception: UN action in Korea ( by default of absence of USSR over China) Consequential emergence, growth of military alliances: NATO (1949) & Warsaw Pact (1955-92) Geopolitical circumstances culminated in imperative for policy doctrine to contain small-scale armed, proxy conflicts A practical response mechanism to global security problems requiring active action Mechanism evolved form practice, improvisations and precedence

Peacekeeping Theory: Broad Outline  Main idea to ‘keep the peace’ (by managing conflict dynamics within a dynamic international system), maintaining fragile ceasefires, stabilizing proxy conflict, preventing another world war (nuclear)  Silence of UN Charter on specific provisions raised political ambiguity  This called for functional adaptation, consistent with UN purpose and principles in a milieu of evolving realities of international system  Chap VII collective security ‘enforcement’ powers undermined by P5 veto powers  Charter :  Chap VI: Pacific Settlement of Disputes  Chap VII: Coercive measures (Enforcement/Peace Enforcement)  Chap VIII: Regional Arrangements. Silence on a specific legal provision for (armed) conflict in the grey area: Chap 6.5 Peacekeeping Chap VI Consent UN Force Peace Enforcement Chap VII No Consent Regional Organization No provision of Peacekeeping, Peace enforcement

Peacekeeping Theory: Broad Outline  A catalyst or dynamic for multi-track development of differentiated intervention:  Chap VI: an adaptive doctrine of military operations to ‘keep the peace’ founded on acceptable principles to Super Powers (consensus and non enforcement)  Chap VII: an adaptive doctrine of military operations to ‘enforce the peace’ founded on the use of lead nations and regional organizations (coalitions)  Chap VI and a half: a middle ground adaptive doctrine of military operations to ‘keep the peace’ founded on acceptable principles to Super Powers (consensus and non enforcement), but employing robust measures PEACEKEEPING (MULTI-DIRECTIONAL) CHAP VI ‘PEACEKEEPING ‘ (CONSENT BASED) CHAP VI AND A HALF ROBUST PEACEKEEPING (CONSENT BASED) CHAP VIII ‘PEACE ENFORCEMENT ‘ (NON CONSENT BASED)

UN Peacekeeping Missions Completed Missions – 55 Africa – 21 Americas – 9 Asia – 10 Europe – 8 Middle East - 7

UN Peacekeeping Missions

Size of UN Peacekeeping Forces 1947 - 2009

UN Peacekeeping Operations Current Missions – 16 Africa – 8 America – 1 Asia – 2 Middle East – 3 Europe - 2

Current UN Peacekeeping Operations

Cost Per UN Peace Operations

UN Peacekeeping Budget 1971 - 2005

UN Peacekeeping Budget 2011/2012

Top UN Contributors

Merits of Post-Cold War Peace Operations Intensity of armed conflicts reduced since early 1990s by 40% (KAIPTC Conflict Data) Number of battle deaths are falling Most conflicts ended through negotiated settlements rather than military actions Where peacekeepers are deployed, likelihood of war reigniting falls by 75% to 85% compared to cases where no peacekeepers are deployed (Fortna: 2008) Traditional PKOs reduced likelihood of war reigniting by 86% (Fortna:2008)

Merits of Post-Cold War Peace Operations Peace operations prevented or ended genocide and mass killing by directly challenging perpetrators (Krain:2005) Well equipped PKOs have saved lives than ill equipped and ill conceived operations – However poor examples of Rwanda, Lebanon and DRC Peace Operations have helped to build stable democratic peace in medium to long term

Challenges of Post-Cold War Peace Operations Failure to prevent genocide whilst peacekeepers were deployed Peacekeepers sometimes commit crimes against the people they are to protect – physical abuse of prisoners including children (Somalia) Corrupt and criminal peacekeepers endangered and abused people (Razack:2004) – rape cases, sexually exploitation of women and girls, trading arms with warlords Failure to resolve protracted disputes due to ineffective PKOs– Middle East, Cyprus, Western Sahara

@EW Kotia Conclusion

References Alex Bellamy and Paul Williams, (2010) Understanding Peacekeeping, Second Edition, (Cambridge, Polity Press) http://www.un.org/en/hq/dm/pdfs/oppba/Peacekeeping. http://www.un.org/en/hq/dm/pdfs/oppba/Peacekeeping Williams Paul., (2011), War and Conflict in Africa, (Cambridge, Polity Press). Kofi Annan, (2012), Interventions, (New York,The Penguim Press) Kwesi Aning & Festus Aubyn., (2013) ‘Ghana in Alex Bellamy & Paul Williams, Eds., Providing Peacekeepers: The Politics Challenges and Future of United Nations Contributions (Oxford: OUP) UN Website on Peacekeeping Operations Emmanuel Wekem Kotia. 2012. "Liberia: History of the Origins of War and Profiles of Actors" The Selected Works of Emmanuel Wekem Kotia Available at: http://works.bepress.com/emmanuel_kotia/2http://works.bepress.com/emmanuel_kotia/2 Kotia, Emmanuel W.(2013) "Understanding the Geopolitics of the War in Southern Lebanon." KAIPTC Occasional Paper No. 35. (Accra, Ghana: Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre).

Types of Peace Operations Colonel Emmanuel Kotia, PhD Visiting Professor, Kennesaw State University, USA

Introduction

Aims and Objectives Examine the concept of peace operations and the various levels of UN peace operations Discuss the various doctrines and approaches to peace operation from the immediate post cold world era to present day Assess the challenges confronting multi- dimensional or wider peace operations Draw conclusions

What is Peace Operations? Peace Operations involve the expeditionary use of uniformed personnel (Military and/or Police) with or without UN authorization, with a mandate or program to: – assist in the prevention of armed conflict by supporting a peace process – serve as an instrument to observe or assist in the implementation of ceasefire or peace agreements – enforce ceasefires, peace agreements or the will of the UNSC in order to build stable peace

Local National Regional Global Macro/Structural Levels of Peace Operations

Both general phenomena of peace operations and individual missions can be studied at 5 levels: Macro or Structural Level – explains the deep structural factors that shape the way peace operations are understood and practiced (global culture, gender discrimination) Global Level – explains decision-making in global organization like the UN (legitimacy, norms and power politics in shaping political decisions) Regional Level – explains how states in given regions reach shared understandings about the role of peace operations which may be different from other regions

Levels of Peace Operations National Level – peace operations have typically operated at the national level – attention is placed on individual missions or the policies of individual states Local Level – peace operations is meant to build on sustainable peace in war-torn societies – this level highlights the ways in which masculinized peace operations have made segments local population more insecure eg SEA – what local population think about peacekeepers – inclusion of local actors in decision-making in peace process

Approaches to Peace Operations Westphalian Approach – Notion of sovereignty that grants states protection from interference by outsiders Post Westphalian Concept – Notion of sovereignty and responsibility. States enjoy non-interference so far as they protect the fundamental rights of citizens (Maintaining a world order based on liberal democracy)

Westphalian Approah Sovereign Responsibility - Limited to relations with other states Non-Interference - Absolute (more or less) right of sovereigns Peace Operations (inter-state) -Most frequent. Consensual activity designed to facilitate peaceful settlement of disputes between states Peace Operations (intra-state) Less frequent. Usually designed to facilitate peaceful settlement of disputes between states Key Advocates - China, India, Cuba, NAM

Post Westphalian Concept Sovereign Responsibility - Relations with other states and for treatment of citizens Non-Interference – Dependent on fulfillment of responsibilities to citizens - example R2P Peace Operations (inter-state) - Less frequent. Usually designed to facilitate peaceful settlement of disputes between states Peace Operations (intra-state) - Most frequent. Extensive engagement to facilitate or sometimes impose liberal democratic polities and economies Key Advocates - Western Europe, UN Secretary- General

Tony Blair’s ‘Post Westphalian Doctrine “We live in a world where isolationism has ceased to have a reason to exist. By necessity we have to co-operate with each other across nations. Many of our domestic problems are caused on the other side of the world... We are all internationalists now, whether we like it or not. We cannot refuse to participate in global markets if we want to prosper. We cannot ignore new political ideas in other countries if we want to innovate. We cannot turn our backs on conflicts and the violation of human rights within other countries if we want still to be secure... The most pressing foreign policy problem we face is to identify the circumstances in which we should get actively involved in other people’s conflicts. Non-interference has long been considered an important principle of international order. And it is not one we would want to jettison too readily... But the principle of non- interference must be qualified in important respects. Acts of genocide can never be a purely internal matter.” (Blair 1999)

Types of Peace Operations

Prevention Deployment Prevention Deployment is usually conducted with the consent of the host state Peacekeepers are deplyed in order to prevent either violent conflict from emerging in the first place or a specific threat to a civilian population from materializing Preventive Deployments: – Preventing war in Macedonia (UNPREDEP) – deter Serbia forces crossing Macedonia, 1992 – EU Force in Democratic Republic of Congo in 2006 –to support elections and escalation of violence

Traditional Peacekeeping Operations These operations are intended to support peacemaking between states by creating the political space necessary for the belligerent states to negotiate a political settlement. Traditional peacekeeping takes place in the space between a ceasefire agreement and the conclusion of a political settlement Traditional peacekeepers do not propose or enforce particular solutions; rather, they work with the consent of the belligerents and try to build confidence in order to facilitate political dialogue

Transitional period of demise of the League of Nations: 1945-46 Cold War rivalries and political stalemate Primarily to ‘keep the peace’ rather than to end the conflict, by monitoring fault lines Originally, unarmed military observers and lightly armed troops to: Monitor fragile ceasefire, truce and armistice lines Supervise withdrawal (separation) of forces Establish and maintain buffer zones Verify compliance with peace accords Report violations Build confidence Prevent escalation Create space for mediation Traditional Peacekeeping – The Dynamics

Traditional Peace Operations in Lebanon

Wider Peacekeeping These operations are intended to fulfil the aims of the traditional peacekeeping as well as certain additional tasks on the context of ongoing conflict – delivery of humanitarian relief Wider peacekeeping operations developed an ad hoc response to the breakdown of ceasefire or political agreements that enabled the original deployment of a traditional or assisting transition operation

Peace Enforcement Operations These operations aim to impose the will of the UNSC upon the parties to a particular conflict (UN Charter Chapter VII) Peace Enforcement operations are the closest manifestation of the collective security role originally envisaged for the UN by the authors of its Charter Challenges: Lack of clarity of the use of enforcement – use of all means available UN cannot conduct large scale operations – funding, equipment Discriminatory usage – Liberia ignore, Rwanda genocide

Peace Enforcement Operations

Assisting Transition Operations These multi-dimensional operations involve the deployment of military, police and /or civilian personnel to assist the parties to a conflict in the implementation of a political settlement or transition from a peace heavily supported by international agencies to one that is self-sustaining They tend to take place after both a ceasefire and political settlement have been reached External actors play mediatory or peacemaking roles that pave the way for a political settlement, but peacekeepers are not deployed until the settlement has been concluded The mandate of transitional operations usually revolves around the implementation of the peace settlement

Transitional Authority These are also multi-dimensional operations deployed after a peace agreement, but they distinguished by their assumption of sovereign authority over a particular territory Transitional Authorities have the following tasks: – Protection of Civilians – Peace Enforcement – Making and enforcement of laws – Exercising control over all aspects of state’s economy – Presiding over territory’s borders – Regulation of the media – Management of property law – Running of schools, hospitals, sanitation system, electricity grid, roads – Administering the Judicial system

Transitional Authority: A New Dynamic  A UN multi-dimensional peacekeeping operation that temporarily assumes legislative and administrative functions of the State  Pending resolution of sovereignty questions, such as supporting transfer of authority  During transitional administrations, to establish administrative structures that may not have existed  Authorised by UNSC  Pending resolution of sovereignty questions Examples: UNTAC (1992-93), UNTAET (1999-2002), UNMIK (1999)

Peace Support Operations These are designed to help establish post Westphalian peace – Blair’s doctrine (1999) They aim to establish liberal democracy political systems and societies within states They combine robust military forces capable of limited peace enforcement tasks if a ceasefire breaks down – Bosnia, Kosovo, DRC It has a strong civilian component that includes civil administration, humanitarian agencies; and police and justice officers – Liberia, Cambodia Peace Support Operations attempt the impartial enforcement of political settlement

Merits of Post-Cold War Peace Operations Peace operations helped to reduce intensity of armed conflicts since early 1990s by 40% (Uppsala Conflict Data program) Traditional peacekeeping operations reduced likelihood of war reigniting by 86% Where peacekeepers were deployed the likelihood of war reigniting fell by 75% to 85% compared to cases where no peacekeepers are deployed (Fortna: 2008) Number of deaths in conflicts fell since the introduction of peace operations (Humans Security Centre: 2005, Mack: 2007) Peace Operations has made vital contribution to reducing the frequency and lethality of war in the world

Merits of Post-Cold War Peace Operations Peace operations prevented or ended genocide and mass killing by directly challenging perpetrators (Krain:2005) Well equipped PKOs have saved lives than ill equipped and ill conceived operations Peace Operations have helped to build stable democratic peace in medium to long term

Challenges of Post-Cold War Peace Operations Failure to prevent genocide whilst peacekeepers were deployed Peacekeepers sometimes commit crimes against the people they are to protect – physical abuse of prisoners including children (Somalia) Corrupt and criminal peacekeepers endangered and abused people (Razack:2004) – rape cases, sexually exploitation of women and girls, trading arms with warlords Failure to resolve protracted disputes due to ineffective PKOs– Middle East, Cyprus, Western Sahara

Conclusion

References Alex Bellamy and Paul Williams, (2010) Understanding Peacekeeping, Second Edition, (Cambridge, Polity Press) Kotia, Emmanuel W.(2013) "Understanding the Geopolitics of the War in Southern Lebanon." KAIPTC Occasional Paper No. 35. (Accra, Ghana: Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre). Williams Paul., (2011), War and Conflict in Africa, (Cambridge, Polity Press). Kofi Annan, (2012), Interventions, (New York,The Penguim Press) Kwesi Aning & Festus Aubyn., (2013) ‘Ghana in Alex Bellamy & Paul Williams, Eds., Providing Peacekeepers: The Politics Challenges and Future of United Nations Contributions (Oxford: OUP) UN Website on Peacekeeping Operations (www.un.org) Fortna, V.P. (2008a) ‘Peacekeeping and Democratization’, in A.K. Jarstad and T.D. Sisk (eds), From War to Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) Fortna, V.P. (2008b) Does peacekeeping Work? Shaping Beligerents’ Choices after Civil War (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press Human Security Centre (2005) Human Security Report 2005, (Oxford, Oxford University Press Mack, A. (2007) Global Political Violence: Explaining the Post Cold War Decline (Coping with Crisis Working Paper, New York: International Peace Academy) Emmanuel Wekem Kotia. 2012. "Liberia: History of the Origins of War and Profiles of Actors" The Selected Works of Emmanuel Wekem Kotia Available at: http://works.bepress.com/emmanuel_kotia/2

Contemporary Challenges to Peace Operations in Africa Colonel Emmanuel Kotia, PhD Visiting Professor, Kennesaw State University (USA)

Introduction

Aims and Objectives Discuss some initial thoughts of the characteristic of peace operations Outline in brief some of the types of peace operations conducted or authorized by the UN in Africa Assess the structural challenges of peace operations in Africa in relation to economic, political, gender, protection of civilians and capacity challenges Draw some conclusions

What is Peacekeeping Peacekeeping is a technique designed to preserve the peace, however fragile, where fighting has been halted, and to assist in implementing agreements achieved by the peacemakers. Over the years, peacekeeping has evolved from a primarily military model of observing ceasefires and the separation of forces after inter-state wars, to incorporate a complex model of many elements – military, police and civilian – working together to help lay the foundations for sustainable peace (UN Capstone Doctrine : 18 )

Some Thoughts on Peacekeeping…. General usage of Peacekeeping “refers to any international effort involving an operational component to promote termination of armed conflict or resolution of longstanding disputes” (Diehl 1993:4) UN use of the term ‘peacekeeping’ refers generally to such international efforts, sometimes differentiated from term of ‘peace support operations’ To avoid confusion with limited meaning of term as applied to ‘peacekeeping’ Use of UN ‘peace operations’. Brahimi Panel suggests both may be interchangeable

Traditional Peacekeeping Operations These operations are intended to support peacemaking between states by creating the political space necessary for the belligerent states to negotiate a political settlement. Traditional peacekeeping takes place in the space between a ceasefire agreement and the conclusion of a political settlement Traditional peacekeepers do not propose or enforce particular solutions; rather, they work with the consent of the belligerents and try to build confidence in order to facilitate political dialogue

Multi-Dimensional Peacekeeping Multi-dimensional UN peacekeeping operations are peacekeeping operations comprising a mix of military, police and civilian components working together to lay the foundations of a sustainable peace Capstone Doctrine:97

Wider Peacekeeping These operations are intended to fulfill the aims of the traditional peacekeeping as well as certain additional tasks on the context of ongoing conflict – delivery of humanitarian relief Wider peacekeeping operations developed an ad hoc response to the breakdown of ceasefire or political agreements that enabled the original deployment of a traditional or assisting transition operation

Peace Enforcement Operations These operations aim to impose the will of the UNSC upon the parties to a particular conflict (UN Charter Chapter VII) Peace Enforcement operations are the closest manifestation of the collective security role originally envisaged for the UN by the authors of its Charter Challenges: Lack of clarity of the use of enforcement – use of all means available UN cannot conduct large scale operations – funding, equipment Discriminatory usage – Liberia conflict was ignored in 1990, Rwanda genocide

Transitional Authority These are also multi-dimensional operations deployed after a peace agreement, but they distinguished by their assumption of sovereign authority over a particular territory Transitional Authorities have the following tasks: – Protection of civilians – Peace enforcement – Make and enforce laws – Exercise control over all aspects of state’s economy – Preside over territory’s borders – Regulate the media – Manage property law – Run schools, hospitals, sanitation system, electricity grid, roads – Administer judicial system

Peace Support Operations These are designed to help establish post Westphalian peace – Blair’s doctrine (1999) They aim to establish liberal democracy political systems and societies within states They combine robust military forces capable of limited peace enforcement tasks if a ceasefire breaks down – Bosnia, Kosovo, DRC It has a strong civilian component that includes civil administration, humanitarian agencies; and police and justice officers – Liberia, Cambodia Peace Support Operations attempt the impartial enforcement of political settlement

Peace Support Operations in Liberia

Vast majority of internal armed conflicts: internecine, fratricidal Non-state actors, proliferation of factions Lack of clearly defined (no) frontlines Cross-border involvement of state and non-state actors (borderless conflicts)/Proliferation of small arms Affinity with natural resources Impunity State collapse, destruction, failure, decay… Insufficient consent, Partial ceasefires Lack of faith with comprehensive agreements Modern Peacekeeping: Characteristics

Peacekeeping Theory: A Broad Outline  Main idea to ‘keep the peace’ (by managing conflict dynamics within a dynamic international system), maintaining fragile ceasefires, stabilizing proxy conflict, preventing another world war (nuclear)  Silence of UN Charter on specific provisions raised political ambiguity  This called for functional adaptation, consistent with UN purpose and principles in a milieu of evolving realities of international system  Chap VII collective security ‘enforcement’ powers undermined by P5 veto powers  Charter lacunae:  Chap VI: Pacific Settlement of Disputes  Chap VII: Coercive measures (Enforcement/Peace Enforcement)  Chap VIII: Regional Arrangements. Silence on a specific legal provision for (armed) conflict in the grey area: Chap 6.5 Peacekeeping Chap VI Consent UN Force Peace Enforcement Chap VII No Consent Regional Organization No provision of Peacekeeping, Peace enforcement

Peacekeeping Theory: A Broad Outline  A catalyst or dynamic for multi-track development of differentiated intervention:  Chap VI: an adaptive doctrine of military operations to ‘keep the peace’ founded on acceptable principles to Supper Powers (consensus and non enforcement)  Chap VII: an adaptive doctrine of military operations to ‘enforce the peace’ founded on the use of lead nations and regional organizations (coalitions)  Chap VI and a half: a middle ground adaptive doctrine of military operations to ‘keep the peace’ founded on acceptable le principles to Super Powers (consensus and non enforcement), but employing robust measures PEACEKEEPING (MULTI-DIRECTIONAL) CHAPTER VI ‘PEACEKEEPING ‘ (CONSENT BASED) CHAPTER VI AND A HALF ROBUST PEACEKEEPING (CONSENT BASED) CHAPTER VIII ‘PEACE ENFORCEMENT ‘ (NON CONSENT BASED)

Structural Challenges of Peacekeeping Operations in Africa

Economic Challenges of Peace Operations in Africa Disparities of wealth among potential partners Africa partners are poor as compare to European and other regions in providing financial contributions for peacekeeping Non payment of dues by African countries to the African Union and peacekeeping contributions The Africa Union Peace Fund had less than $70 million between 1993 and 2005 - $45 million was provided by non African actors Peace fund had negative balance by 2009

Lack of Technical Capacity for Peace Operations Africa Peace Operations Lack the Following: Well-trained troops, police and civilian personnel Good leaders – Head of Missions, Force Commanders Appropriate materials and equipment – APCs, Helicopters, Strategic airlift capabilities Well equipped hospital facilities Logistic Bases and Hubs Training facilities Management structures and qualified staff to sustain peacekeeping missions

Political Challenges to Peace Operations Lack of consensus in partnership between the Africa Union and the UN in peace operations Regular clash of philosophies, priorities, and practical approaches between the two councils UN peacekeeping doctrine makes the Africa Union unable to deploy a peace mission UN PK Doctrine: peacekeeping is unlikely to succeed where one or more of the following conditions are not in place: 1) a peace to keep, where the signing of a ceasefire or peace agreement is one (but not the only) important indicator that parties are genuinely seeking peace; 2) positive regional engagement; 3) full backing of a united Security Council; and 4) a clear and achievable mandate with resources to match (Paul Williams)

Political Challenges to Peace Operations The AU argues that the UN’s peacekeeping doctrine renders it unable to ‘deploy a peace mission in a situation like Somalia even though significant advances have been made on the ground The AU has developed a different peacekeeping doctrine; instead of waiting for a peace to keep, the AU views peacekeeping as an opportunity to establish peace before keeping it Africa Union Concerns Undesirable trend that appears to be selective on the part of the UN Security Council and that seems to disregard full consideration of the position and/or recommendations of the AU or its organs The practice that the United Nations can only engage where there is peace to keep translates into the United Nations abandonment of some of the most challenging crisis situations in Africa The notion that the UN can only engage in a crisis when there is a peace to keep is unacceptable to Africa

Introduction of Privatization of Peace Operations Use of private organization for peace operations is not compatible to the responsibility of the UN for the maintenance of International peace and security Private contractors have a mixed track record of accountability and transparency – Blackwater in Iraq Private contractors have profit driving motive in their activities Private companies sometimes abandon contracts and flee theatre of operations when things get tough – Gurkha Security Guards left Sierra Leone operations Private contractors both contribute to and reflect the growing erosion of state monopoly on the legitimate instruments of military force

Challenges to Protection of Civilians Protection of Civilians (PoC) is a core function of contemporary peacekeeping operations Platform for PoC are: sexual violence against women, violence against IDPs and refugee camps, limited access, targeting of humanitarian staff, impunity – local capacity for rule of law, participate in political negotiations, prosecution of individuals Lack of coordination between actors and humanitarian agencies – Scope of humanitarian agencies – Conflicting issues – Neutrality and independence of humanitarian agencies Overall responsibility for PoC not clear – who plays lead role is not clear

Gender Challenges of Peace Operations Sexual Exploitation and Abuse (SEA) and peace operations – Peacekeepers versus local population – UN DPKO report (2005) – 45% sex cases against minors, 31% prostitution with adult women, 15% rape or sexual assault HIV/AIDS and peace operations – Spread through Sexual Exploitation and Abuse – Prevalence rate in national militaries after peace operations – Number of prostitutes in Cambodia rose for 6,000 in 1992 to 25,000 at the height of peace mission (Whitworth 2004:67) – Rise of HIV cases since deployment of UN decline from 1997 Women as peacekeepers – cultural dimensions, key local parties fail to include women in peace negotiations

Female Military Peacekeepers

Policing Challenges in Peace Operations Inadequate numbers in Africa to support operations – shortfall of experience police personnel – Low strength at national levels Lack of common interpretation of laws – Lack of joint training – Absence of standard operating procedures Recruitment of individual Police personnel for missions instead of Formed Units Poor skills of Africa Police personnel for rule of law, prosecuting and some expertise Absence of a Police Commissioner/Adviser at the Africa Union

Police Peacekeepers

Other Challenges to Peace Operations in Africa Partnership between UN and the Africa Union in peace operations lack coordination – Hybrid operations in Darfur, Liberia, Somalia, Mali Ineffective Africa Union organization for Peace Operations Introduction of Wet Lease System

Effects of War and Conflicts War and Conflicts

Liaison Visits Peace Operations

Pictures of Peace Operations Medal Day

Conclusion @EW Kotia Challenges of Peace Operations in Africa

References Alex Bellamy and Paul Williams, (2010) Understanding Peacekeeping, Second Edition, (Cambridge, Polity Press) Kotia, Emmanuel W.(2013) "Understanding the Geopolitics of the War in Southern Lebanon." KAIPTC Occasional Paper No. 35. (Accra, Ghana: Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre). Williams Paul., (2011), War and Conflict in Africa, (Cambridge, Polity Press). Kofi Annan, (2012), Interventions, (New York, The Penguin Press) Kwesi Aning & Festus Aubyn., (2013) ‘Ghana in Alex Bellamy & Paul Williams, Eds., Providing Peacekeepers: The Politics Challenges and Future of United Nations Contributions (Oxford: OUP) UN Website on Peacekeeping Operations (www.un.org) Fortna, V.P. (2008a) ‘Peacekeeping and Democratization’, in A.K. Jarstad and T.D. Sisk (eds), From War to Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) Fortna, V.P. (2008b) Does peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents’ Choices after Civil War (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press Human Security Centre (2005) Human Security Report 2005, (Oxford, Oxford University Press Mack, A. (2007) Global Political Violence: Explaining the Post Cold War Decline (Coping with Crisis Working Paper, New York: International Peace Academy) Emmanuel Wekem Kotia. 2012. "Liberia: History of the Origins of War and Profiles of Actors" The Selected Works of Emmanuel Wekem Kotia Available at: http://works.bepress.com/emmanuel_kotia/2

Gender, War and Conflict Colonel Emmanuel Kotia, PhD Visiting Professor, Kennesaw State University, USA

Introduction Conflict usually occurs primarily as a result of a clash of interests in the relationship between parties, groups or states, either because they pursuing opposing or incompatible goals Although the term war is sometimes used as a synonym for conflict, war is referred to violent conflict, involving armed forces But like war, conflict is and has been throughout history a normal way of conducting disputes between political groups within human society As David Weeks puts it, “conflict is an inevitable outcome of human diversity and a world without conflict is not desirable, because it would mean a world without diversity” Africa is a diverse continent – diverse in ethnic, religious and socio-cultural terms

Aims and Objectives Discuss in detail the types, sources and causes of conflicts/war in Africa and address its effects on the people in Africa Examine issues related to Gender, Governance and conflicts in Africa Assess the role of women in conflict prevention, conflict management and conflict resolution as part of peace operations in Africa Reflect on the perspectives on Gender and conflict transformation in Africa Discuss sexual violence against women in conflict situations in Africa Draw conclusions

Some initial thoughts..... The 1990s saw no diminution in the number of conflicts in Africa, and most forecasts predicted further increase The majority of Africa’s conflicts were internal, and these internal conflicts appear to be increasing A tragic factor in this is that the civilian populations bear the brunt of the casualties in such conflicts, estimated at some 80-90 per cent of total casualties across Africa These conflicts cause not only casualties and refugees but contribute vastly to the spread of disease, malnutrition and starvation, social and economic decline and moral deterioration

Types, Sources and Causes of Conflicts and War in Africa

Types of Conflicts in Africa Elite Conflicts : Conflicts within the political leadership. This conflict is normally of a low intensity but has significantly impact on the polity Factional Conflicts: As contending elites mobilized their constituents to vie with other groups for scarce state-controlled resources, factional disputes and conflicts emerge Communal and Mass Conflicts: challenge the legitimacy of specific regimes, essentials of state power, protest on existing distribution of power

Types of Conflicts in Africa Revolutionary Conflicts: Caused by high graduate unemployment, poor standard of living, marginalization of the peasants, emasculation of labor and many other unresolved social ills. Foreign Intervention: Use of respective proxies during the cold war era by superpowers carved out spheres of influence the level of interventions tended to prolong and intensify the conflicts introduction of well-equipped troops of an external power usually increased the level of firepower and escalated the conflict

Sources of Conflicts in Africa Boundary Conflicts: African states’ frontiers are more fluid than at independence as thousands of economic and political refugees moved around the continent Conflict of Governance: State dictatorships tried to shore up ethnic autocracies and are therefore under attack by increasingly militant opposition groups encouraged by both external and internal pro-democracy and human rights organizations Conflict of Economic Development: The economic sovereignty of African states is never strong. This is undermined by pressures to join regional trading blocs and the growth of cross-border trading networks. This conflict also includes the crisis of production and distribution of resources and the competition arising Conflict resulting from foreign intervention: Foreign intervention and withdrawal during and after the Cold War Conflict arising from the militarization of the Society: Abundance of weaponry and trained soldiers and untrained volunteers available to any would-be warlord with resources and determination

Causes of Conflict in Africa (1) Inter-State Borders Unsatisfactory nature of inter-state borders. Nearly all these borders were inherited from colonial times, and were the product of negotiations and treaties between the colonial powers, decided in Europe with the aid of poor maps and with scant attention to African peoples At independence, the African governments shied away from making adjustments. This was difficult as they did not all reach independence at the same time. The existing state structures do not satisfy variously the aspirations for cultural identity, autonomy, economic democracy and self-determination of different nationalities co-existing with the contemporary states Thus, the ease with which dissidents of a state are harbored in neighboring countries and guerrillas armed and trained there, is itself a cause of both internal and inter-state conflicts.

Causes of Conflict in Africa (2) Ethnicity A major cause of African conflicts has been ethnicity, and it has continued The creation of new nation-states at the time of independence was accompanied by urgent calls for nation-building by the new African leaders who were well aware of the difficulty in transcending African ethnic and regional loyalties The European concept of a nation was exported to Africa (Stephen McCarthy)

Causes of Conflicts in Africa (3) Political / Domestic Power struggles, hostile groups, Over-population – youth explosion, unemployment Economic or religious disparities Oppression, and demands for democracy Communal or ethnic violence related to economic, social, religious, cultural or ethnic issues

Causes of Conflicts in Africa (4) Bad Governance It connotes violations of human rights Arbitrary arrest and freedom of association and movement Lack of free, vibrant and open press Judiciary is not independent Mass movements of refugees Poverty or instability caused by the mismanagement or ineptitude of the government, including evident of corruption by the government

Causes of Conflicts in Africa (5) Religion : Christian versus Islam conflicts – dominance and who dominates political elite – Boko Haram in Nigeria Muslims versus Government conflicts – Mali Tuaregs Nomads fight against government 1990 – Algeria 1988 Muslims versus Native Religious conflicts – Sudan 1983 Muslims versus Coptic Christians conflict – Issue of Egypt ( the Muslim Brotherhood)

Effects of Conflicts in Africa Destruction of physical capital and infrastructure – transportation, energy, telecommunications, hospitals Reduce levels of human capital – deaths, diseases, displacements Lost employment opportunities Weakened institutions and decline of social capital Changes in the structure of the economy of the state Negative effect on women and children

Gender, Governance and Conflict in Africa

Some thoughts ……. Women’s contribution to war and peace have long been underestimated Women often contribute to the outbreak of violence and hostilities – inciting men to defend group interest and collective livelihoods Women also play a key role in preserving order and normalcy in the midst of chaos and destruction Women are often left with the burden of ensuring family livelihood when the men are killed, disappear or take refugee Women struggle to protect families health and safety Women can therefore be a driving force for peace

Some thoughts ……. Women under-representation or non involvement in efforts at resolving internal state conflicts has ben under-estimated “Women bear the brunt of the war brutalities in Africa and involved in combat activities yet they are not part of inner circles of peace negotiations, peace accords or policies at the formal level to resolve conflicts” – Boyd: 1994

Women Role in Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution Women are given special attention because the represent vital source of conflict prevention and sustaining peace efforts at the grassroots Women face new challenges and inherit additional responsibilities in the post conflict period – widows, care for children Social transformation in post conflict context opens up opportunities which women can used to empower themselves Transformation in post conflict era should be used to strengthen and enhance women contributions to democratic governance

Role of Women in Political Decision- Making on War and Peace Women are well positioned to play critical role in peacemaking because: – they custodians of family and community values – they nurturers, care givers and mediators within families Women participate in various aspects of war, but when peace negotiations they not involved Women are relegated to their traditional role of service providers when decisions on the consolidation of peace and rebuilding of the country are made Male leaders assume the mantle of strategic decision-making after war/conflict

Role of Women in Political Decision-Making on War and Peace Women are often among the first to call for an end to conflict and to strive for order and rebuilding In postwar situations women probably contribute more than government authorities or international aid agencies to reconciliation, reviving local economies and rebuilding social networks – using groups or individuals Women's organizations have also made remarkable contributions in many African countries towards the post 1990 democratization efforts by organizing civic education and legal counseling program aimed at: – empowering fellow women to participate in electoral politics – lobbying for legal and constitutional reforms that provide for gender equality – access to resources and opportunities for self advancement

Role of Women in Political Decision- Making on War and Peace From the 1990s African women emerge as major contenders to male dominated political power – In Kenya and Liberia, women were major contenders for the presidency in the national elections of the late 1990s – In South Africa women's presence in the legislature is significant, with one serving as the Speaker of the National Assembly; and in Uganda, where women played an active and effective role in the constitution making process – By January 2001, the only African country with a woman vice- president and Liberia as first woman President of Africa in 2007

Women Role During Conflicts – Combatants or Service providers History of liberation and other forms of internal wars provides us with evidence of African women's active involvement as combatants, in Angola, Eritrea, Uganda, Liberia In general, most women, perceive armed conflict as something entirely outside their control -a struggle for power beyond their reach Women may not identify with the objectives of the war for its destructive consequences, and hence the desire for its immediate termination and a return to stability (Bennett et al., 1995: 16) Traditional methods of conflict resolution employed by women for conflict resolution include: – The traditional paraphernalia, with cultural connotations and believed to have mystical powers of imposing discipline – certain taboo acts of protest by women, for example, stripping naked

Women Role During Conflicts – Combatants or Service Providers The Case of Rwanda The genocide of the Tutsi and the killing of the Hutu political opponents which took place in Rwanda highlighted women's role in sustaining conflict and their potential for inflicting extraordinary cruelty, with some women participating in the slaughter of others Hundreds of educated women used their education, experience and standing in the community to urge other women to commit genocide The case of Rwanda is a reminder that war, especially of the genocide kind, is not a normal situation and those involved, may behave abnormally and irrationally, regardless of the gender There is need to refrain from gender stereotyping, and idealizing women, by pegging higher moral standards on them than men

Political Participation – Women as Actors in Conflict and Post Conflict (1) Political reconstruction involves formal peace negotiations between representatives of the warring parties and reaching an agreement regarding power sharing and political priorities During postwar political reconstruction women share many interests and problems with their fellow male citizens, but they also differ on a number of issues In post-war Uganda, the National Resistance Movement(NRM) government, recognized the role women had played in the liberation struggle – seats in Legislature/woman Veep (Boyd,1994) Women play a significant role in reshaping politics in Uganda and assisting in the resolution of violent political conflicts

Political Participation – Women as Actors in Conflict and Post Conflict (2) In Somalia, women formed NGOs which, among other activities, organize peace education activities, that focus on alternative forms of behavior that stress equity and social justice and nonviolent ways of dealing with tensions and conflicts (Jama, 1996; Warsame, 1996) In Sierra Leone women have demonstrated the positive impact of networking and political mobilization. Women organizations have also worked hard to promote sustainable family life The Sudanese Women's Association[SWAN] based in Nairobi, Kenya, has been seeking to build an enabling environment in which Sudanese women can work together across ethnic, cultural, political and religious differences, to promote peace, human rights, women's empowerment and development

Women and Constitutional Reforms The importance of constitutions lie in their definition of people's political, economic and social rights, as citizens of a country and thus play a central role in empowerment Access to and control over resources is a critical issue for women because opportunities to improve their overall status within postwar societies hinges on their economic empowerment The loss of entitlement or restrictions on women's rights and access to resources rather than an actual lack of resources, may constitute the main constraint women face as they try to recover from a damaging war

Women and Constitutional Reforms There should be adequate representation of women in governing bodies, but also for a national constitution that is gender responsive and with concrete guarantees for gender equality Women have been actively involved in wars and post war activities at many levels; and this experience has sharpened their political awareness and raised their expectations of state and society This has contributed to the mobilization of women in peace building processes - organizing and sensitizing the society on important issues like human rights, gender equality, and accountability Women continue to be underrepresented in decision- making bodies at all levels, and for various reasons, they often cannot exercise even established rights

Post-Conflict Economic Reconstruction Economic reconstruction of a country emerging from war is crucial and complex, and directly or indirectly shapes women's postwar livelihoods Post-war phase witnessed state economic failure and rising male unemployment rates, which then put increasing pressure on women to secure income generating activities New developments have included the involvement of women in petty trade and even wholesaling Some women have managed to enter the public or private sector and put the skills they have gained to an advantage In Eritrea, six female ex-combatants formed the Eritrean Veteran Women Fighters‘ Trading and Investment Share Company, which by 1995, had 600 female fighters and ex- fighters who owned shares worth a total of around I million Birr, some of which they intended to invest in a hotel project in Eritrea (Klingebiel et al., 1995)

Gender and Conflict Transformation in Africa

Some Initial thoughts……. Women have been particularly hit during wars in Africa and subsequent humanitarian crisis. They constitute 70% of the productive forces in the rural subsistence economy and are the main food producers in Africa War and general insecurity and violence in Africa have driven many women away from their communities The majority of refugees and internally displaced persons in Africa are women and their children War has produced a large number of widows and female-headed households. Widows are particularly vulnerable

Some Initial thoughts……. In the DRC for example widows make up 9% of the population (compared to 1.4% of male widowed) and 43,9% of the female-headed households The percentages of female-headed households are of 34% in Rwanda and 26% in Burundi This has put more responsibilities on women and forced them to take up new roles for which they were not necessarily prepared War and the crisis have been a catalyst for the emergence of numerous women’s organizations at all levels of society In many cases women have been the first ones to cross the ethnic and political divide, and come together to build bridges between divided communities

Challenges to Conflict Transformation and Peacebuilding in Africa

Sexual Violence against Women and Girls Sexual violence against women is one of the main features of the conflicts in Africa SV are integral part of the war and has been used as a weapon by all sides of the conflict : rebels groups and national armies Sexual violence is also committed by UN peacekeepers who are sent to Africa to protect the civilian population Cases of “survival prostitution” have been increasing, with women and girls trading sex for food and shelter Sexual violence has been committed at a massive scale and has affected thousands of women and girls, with devastating consequences on women and their communities

Sexual Violence against Women and Girls An estimated 250,000 women were raped during the war and genocide in Rwanda, 40,000 to 60,000 women raped between 1996 and2002, in Eastern DRC alone A high number of rape victims are infected with HIV/AIDS According to Human Rights Watch 60% of combatants involved in the war in the Eastern part of DRC, are HIV- positive, which means that there is a high risk of infection Sexual violence also contributes to the erosion of the economic and social foundations of rural communities, which depend for their survival on the productive and reproductive work of women

Sexual Violence against Women and Girls Sexual violence and the general situation of insecurity, have driven many women away from their communities Violence is used to control women’s sexuality as well as their productive and reproductive roles, in order to ensure the day to day survival of the armed forces. Girls and young women who are abducted and kept confined in the fighters’ camps Rape and sexual violence play an important part in the construction of masculinity in Africa Women were also raped as part of the process of construction of a model of powerful male combatant who is invincible on the battlefield There is a wide-spread belief in the among some combatants, that raping a certain category of women such as young virgins, pregnant and breastfeeding women confers magical power and invincibility on the battlefield (Eastern DRC)

Women’s Security The wide circulation of weapons and civilian possession of small arms and lights weapons, is a major threat to women’s security Small arms and light weapons ownership is highly genderized and the bulk of the weapons are kept by men DDR processes and the reforms do not take into account women’s needs as combatants, or supporters of armed groups, and their enormous potential as peace-builders in the immediate aftermath of war The prevention of sexual violence and rape is closely linked to a successful DDR process

Women’s Security In most cases, girl soldiers are not part of the beneficiaries of the DDR process Armed groups are more willing to hand over boys to be demobilized than girls, who play a vital role in providing domestic and sexual services to the combatants Some women organizations are able to negotiate with leaders of armed groups, the release of girl soldiers – example DRC These organizations have developed programs aimed at the smooth reinsertion of girls within their communities Concerns of SSR to form security forms using former combatants who have been involved in sexual violence

Lack of Access to Productive Land after Conflict Land is a very complex issue and one of the root causes of conflict in Africa The right to inherit land is still mainly regulated by customary law, which transfers land ownership from father to son – Girls and widows are excluded Women farmers who are the main producers, cultivate land which belongs to either their partner or another male member of the family Land fragmentation is often used nowadays, as an argument to justify the continuous exclusion of women from inheritance rights A significant portion of the female population are now head of households - especially among the returnees and internally displaced people Reports of women who have been persecuted for claiming their rights to access land in rural Africa

Participation of Women in Politics and Public Life One of the significant development for women, has been their increased participation in political decision-making Women are benefiting from the political transformation taking place in Africa and making significant gains in political participation There are now increasing number of women at all levels of decision making, in cabinet as well as in central and local administration – Rwanda Woman President in post-war Liberia – 1 st Female President in Africa

Cooperation and Support by External Actors for Gender Transformation in Africa

Mainstreaming Gender Three Steps to Mainstream Gender in Peacebuilding Gender analysis in planning, implementation and evaluation of conflict prevention and peace-building programs – Integrating conflict analysis and gender – Analysis, how conflict and violence affect women and men differently Promote gender equality as a core value for all peacebuilding intervention and as a cross cutting issue Promote gender representation by including women and women’s organizations in every stage and activity of peacebuilding

Support for National Gender Policies Introducing and Implementing National Gender Policy Lack of political will and genuine commitment to gender issues Plans to mainstream National Gender policy into the other national policies Building of capacity for gender analysis and advocacy for : – Staff members in the different Ministries – Members of the Legislature parliament – Armed Forces and other Security Services – Civil Society Organizations

Link with Regional Instruments The Protocol to the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights Relating to the Rights of Women: adopted by the African Head of States in Maputo in 2003 and took effect in 2005 The Solemn Declaration on equality between men and women in Africa: adopted by the African Head of States in July 2004 AU/NEPAD post-conflict reconstruction policy - emphasizes the link that exist between the peace, security, humanitarian and development dimensions of post-conflict reconstruction and peace-building

Promote UNSC Resolution 1325 There is very little knowledge of Resolution 1325 in the region and women’s organization do not use it in their work The resolution is not taken seriously by civil society organizations and governments There is a general view that the Resolution is of limited usefulness as it is not incorporated into national legislations Women’s rights organizations have also identified gaps in the Resolution - the lack of a strong and clear position on the issue of impunity in Africa Resolution 1325 does not function as a common reference for decision-makers, international actors and civil society organizations There should be a debate among researchers, donors, policy makers internal organizations and national actors around the potential of Resolution 1325 - aim of introducing another international instrument of women’s rights

Merits of Gender in Governance Assist to economic governance and poverty Integrate gender considerations into institutional reforms so as to ensure greater responsiveness and effectiveness to ensure good governance

Gender and Post-Conflict Governance Strategic Priorities Constitutional Revisions and Processes Political System – Executive, Legislature and Judiciary Electoral System – Electoral Violence, Revision of Voters Register Political Parties Administration, Governance and Processes – Decentralization, Local Governance, Planning and Budgeting

Conclusion

References MacFarlane, S. Neil (1992). Cited Boutros Boutros-Ghali, An Agenda for Peace: Preventive Diplomacy, Peacemaking and Peacekeeping’. Report to the UN. McCarthy, S. (1990). Development Stalled: the Crisis in Africa – A Personal View. European Investment Bank Papers. P.19. Rupesinghe, Kumar (1992). Early Warning and Conflict Resolution. International Alert Conference, London. Rupesinghe, Kumar (1992). Conflict Transformation in Multi-Ethnic Societies. International Peace Research Association (IPRA) Conference. OUP. Ryan, S. (1994). Ethnic Conflicts and International Relations. Dartmouth, USA Tangri, Roger (1985). Politics in Sub-Saharan Africa. James Currey, London Emmanuel Wekem Kotia. 2012. "Liberia: History of the Origins of War and Profiles of Actors" The Selected Works of Emmanuel Wekem Kotia Available at: http://works.bepress.com/emmanuel_kotia/2 Kotia, Emmanuel W.(2013) "Understanding the Geopolitics of the War in Southern Lebanon." KAIPTC Occasional Paper No. 35. (Accra, Ghana: Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre). Williams Paul., (2011), War and Conflict in Africa, (Cambridge, Polity Press). Kofi Annan, (2012), Interventions, (New York,The Penguim Press) Kwesi Aning & Festus Aubyn., (2013) ‘Ghana in Alex Bellamy & Paul Williams, Eds., Providing Peacekeepers: The Politics Challenges and Future of United Nations Contributions (Oxford: OUP)

References Mugambe, Beatrice (2000), Women's Roles in Armed Conflict and their Marginalisation in the Governance of Post- Conflict Society, Uganda Gender Issues Research Report Series, no. 11, Addis Ababa, OSSREA, February. Nzomo, Maria (1994) "Women in Politics and Public Decision-making" in Himmelstrand, U.et al (eds) In Search of New Paradigms for the Study of African Development. London, James Currey. Iyob, Ruth (1997). "The Eritrean Experiment: A Cautious Pragmatism?," Journal of Modern African Studies, 35(4): 64773. Chingono, Mark F. (1996). "War, Economic Crisis and the Emergence of the Grassroots War Economy", pp. 71126, and "Women, War and Change: An Ambiguous Legacy," pp. 20943, in M.F. Chingono, The State, Violence and Development: The Political Economy of War in Mozambique, 19751992, Aldershot, Avebury. Bennet, Olivia; Bexley, Jo; and Warnock, Kitty (1995). Arms to Fight: Arms to Protect : Women Speak Out About Conflict, London, Panos. Udom, Ime Essien (2000) "Conflict Transformation in Africa: Africa Women's Perspective. The Nigerian Situation" Paper presented at AAWORD/ALERT Workshop on Conflict Transformation in Africa. Dakar, 23 _ 26 May 2000

References DFID : Why we need to work more effectively in Fragile States, January 2005 Human Rights Watch: The war within the war- Sexual violence against women and girls in Eastern DRC, New York, 2002 Schroeder, E. : A window of opportunity in the Democratic Republic of the Congo : Incorporating a gender perspective in the Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration process. Bradford University Farr, V. : African women’s experiences of DDR, Panel at the Beijing +10 Review, NYC, 10 March2005 Bazigaga, G., Egan L., von Tangen Page, M. : Women’s security in Burundi, trip report, International Alert, June 2005

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