1. 1 Chapter 11 Linguistics and Language Teaching

2. 2 Applied linguistics Applied linguistics Theoretical views of language explicitly or implicitly inform the approaches and methods adopted in language teaching. Theoretical views of language explicitly or implicitly inform the approaches and methods adopted in language teaching. Linguistics, as the science of language, should be of fundamental importance for teachers of language. Linguistics, as the science of language, should be of fundamental importance for teachers of language.

3. 3 According to Jo McDonough, a teacher who is able to explain some linguistic features would have a stronger position than one who handles the argument by using authority – “it’s like that”, “it’s an exception”, or “it’s less formal”. According to Jo McDonough, a teacher who is able to explain some linguistic features would have a stronger position than one who handles the argument by using authority – “it’s like that”, “it’s an exception”, or “it’s less formal”.

4. 4 1. Linguistics and language learning Many language learning theories are proposed based on certain linguistic theories. Many language learning theories are proposed based on certain linguistic theories. In fact, knowledge in linguistics lies at the root of understanding what language learners can learn, how they actually learn and what they learn ultimately. In fact, knowledge in linguistics lies at the root of understanding what language learners can learn, how they actually learn and what they learn ultimately.

5. 5 As Rod Ellis points out, “whereas much of the earlier work focused on the linguistic and, in particular, the grammatical-properties of learner language and was psycholinguistic in orientation, later work has also attended to the pragmatic aspects of learner language and, increasingly, has adopted a sociolinguistic perspective. As Rod Ellis points out, “whereas much of the earlier work focused on the linguistic and, in particular, the grammatical-properties of learner language and was psycholinguistic in orientation, later work has also attended to the pragmatic aspects of learner language and, increasingly, has adopted a sociolinguistic perspective.

6. 6 Although certain language learners (e.g., advanced learners and students majoring a foreign language) certainly benefit from a knowledge of linguistics, it is not sensible to recommend the majority of language learners to study linguistics while they are still struggling with the task of learning the language itself. Although certain language learners (e.g., advanced learners and students majoring a foreign language) certainly benefit from a knowledge of linguistics, it is not sensible to recommend the majority of language learners to study linguistics while they are still struggling with the task of learning the language itself.

7. 7 1.1 Grammar As a compromise between the “purely form- focused approaches” and the “purely meaning- focused” approaches, a recent movement called focus on form seems to take a more balanced view on the role of grammar in language learning. As a compromise between the “purely form- focused approaches” and the “purely meaning- focused” approaches, a recent movement called focus on form seems to take a more balanced view on the role of grammar in language learning. Do we teach grammar? Do we teach grammar? How do we teach grammar? How do we teach grammar?

8. 8 Focus on Form Although language learning should generally be meaning-focused and communication- oriented, it is still necessary and beneficial to focus on form occasionally. Although language learning should generally be meaning-focused and communication- oriented, it is still necessary and beneficial to focus on form occasionally.

9. 9 Focus on form often consists of an occasional shift of attention to linguistic code features—by the teacher and/or one or more students—triggered by perceived problems with comprehension or production. Focus on form often consists of an occasional shift of attention to linguistic code features—by the teacher and/or one or more students—triggered by perceived problems with comprehension or production.

10. 10 Universal Grammar Two variables concerning the amenability of language elements to focus on form are the relevance of Universal Grammar (UG) and the complexity of language structures. Two variables concerning the amenability of language elements to focus on form are the relevance of Universal Grammar (UG) and the complexity of language structures. According to the advocates of focus on form, if an L2 structure is part of UG, the amenability is high; otherwise, the amenability is low. According to the advocates of focus on form, if an L2 structure is part of UG, the amenability is high; otherwise, the amenability is low.

11. 11 The problem is that no one knows for sure what exactly is part of UG. It is here that the study of linguistics comes into play. The problem is that no one knows for sure what exactly is part of UG. It is here that the study of linguistics comes into play. The study of UG, which is often considered as the theory for the sake of theory, is now needed in language learning research in the most practical sense. The study of UG, which is often considered as the theory for the sake of theory, is now needed in language learning research in the most practical sense.

12. 12 The study of UG has attracted considerable attention from many second language acquisition researchers because knowledge of linguistic universals may help to shape L2 acquisition in a number of ways. The study of UG has attracted considerable attention from many second language acquisition researchers because knowledge of linguistic universals may help to shape L2 acquisition in a number of ways. For example, it can provide explanations for developmental sequences and language transfer. For example, it can provide explanations for developmental sequences and language transfer.

13. 13 Structural complexity It can be assumed that less complex structures have higher amenability, but complexity is hard to define. It can be assumed that less complex structures have higher amenability, but complexity is hard to define. Formally simple structures can be functionally complex and formally complex items are not necessarily functionally complex. Formally simple structures can be functionally complex and formally complex items are not necessarily functionally complex. Again we resort to linguistics in order to have a better understanding of the complexity of language structures. Again we resort to linguistics in order to have a better understanding of the complexity of language structures.

14. 14 Grammar-based teaching Grammar-translation method Grammar-translation method Audiolingual method Audiolingual method Situational language teaching Situational language teaching

15. 15 1.2 Input Language learning can take place when the learner has enough access to input in the target language. Language learning can take place when the learner has enough access to input in the target language. This input may come in written or spoken form. This input may come in written or spoken form. In the case of spoken input, it may occur in the context of interaction or in the context of non-reciprocal discourse. In the case of spoken input, it may occur in the context of interaction or in the context of non-reciprocal discourse.

16. 16 Views diverge greatly as to what kind of input should be provided for language learners. Views diverge greatly as to what kind of input should be provided for language learners. Authentic input Authentic input Comprehensible input (Krashen): i+1 Comprehensible input (Krashen): i+1 Premodified input Premodified input Interactively modified input: tends to do a better job Interactively modified input: tends to do a better job

17. 17 Input-based teaching Direct method Direct method Natural approach Natural approach Total physical response Total physical response Communicative approach Communicative approach Community language learning (CLL) Community language learning (CLL) Suggestopedia Suggestopedia Silent way Silent way

18. 18 Suggestopedia: Learn While You Sleep! The Bulgarian physician Georgi Lozanov devised a language learning method called Suggestopedia. The Bulgarian physician Georgi Lozanov devised a language learning method called Suggestopedia.

19. 19 Caleb Gattegno ’ s Silent Way

20. 20 This is a chart containing a certain number of different coloured rectangles; each colour corresponds to a sound in the language. This is a chart containing a certain number of different coloured rectangles; each colour corresponds to a sound in the language.

21. 21 The Fidel is a set of charts presenting all the possible spellings of each sound of the language. The Fidel is a set of charts presenting all the possible spellings of each sound of the language.

22. 22 One of the 12 word charts on which the functional words of the language are printed in color. One of the 12 word charts on which the functional words of the language are printed in color.

23. 23 http://www.saudicaves.com/silentway/rods/eng-rods.htm

24. 24 1.3 Interlanguage—output The type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as interlanguage. The type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as interlanguage. It is often understood as a language system between the target language and the learner’s native language. It is often understood as a language system between the target language and the learner’s native language.

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26. 26 Interlanguage is a dynamic language system, which is constantly moving from the departure level to the native-like level. Interlanguage is a dynamic language system, which is constantly moving from the departure level to the native-like level. Can be done in two ways: Can be done in two ways: investigating the psychological, biological or neurological mechanisms involved in the production of interlanguage; investigating the psychological, biological or neurological mechanisms involved in the production of interlanguage; investigating the linguistic features of interlanguage. investigating the linguistic features of interlanguage.

27. 27 Concerning the linguistic features of interlanguage, the following questions can be asked: Concerning the linguistic features of interlanguage, the following questions can be asked: Linguistically, how is interlanguage in general different from the target language or the native language? Linguistically, how is interlanguage in general different from the target language or the native language? In what way is lower level interlanguage different from higher level interlanguage? In what way is lower level interlanguage different from higher level interlanguage? How is the interlanguage system used to convey meaning? How is the interlanguage system used to convey meaning?

28. 28 Constructivism Language (or any knowledge) is socially constructed. Language (or any knowledge) is socially constructed. Learners learn language by cooperating, negotiating and performing all kinds of tasks. Learners learn language by cooperating, negotiating and performing all kinds of tasks. In other words, they construct language in certain social and cultural contexts. In other words, they construct language in certain social and cultural contexts.

29. 29 2. Linguistics and Language Teaching Linguistics theories influence our general orientation in approaches to language teaching. Linguistics theories influence our general orientation in approaches to language teaching. Linguistic knowledge helps teachers to better explain the specific language items they teach. Linguistic knowledge helps teachers to better explain the specific language items they teach.

30. 30 2.1 Discourse-based view Linguistic patterns exist across stretches of text. Linguistic patterns exist across stretches of text. These patterns of language extend beyond the words, clauses and sentences, which have been the traditional concern of much language teaching. These patterns of language extend beyond the words, clauses and sentences, which have been the traditional concern of much language teaching. Focuses on complete spoken and written texts and on the social and cultural contexts in which such language operates. Focuses on complete spoken and written texts and on the social and cultural contexts in which such language operates. Accordingly, it aims at developing discourse competence, similar to the well-known concept of communicative competence. Accordingly, it aims at developing discourse competence, similar to the well-known concept of communicative competence.

31. 31 Communicative competence Dell Hymes Dell Hymes What a learners knows about how a language is used in particular situations for effective and appropriate communication. What a learners knows about how a language is used in particular situations for effective and appropriate communication. Includes knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary, knowledge of rules of speaking, knowledge of how to use and respond to different types of speech acts and social conventions, and knowledge of how to use language appropriately. Includes knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary, knowledge of rules of speaking, knowledge of how to use and respond to different types of speech acts and social conventions, and knowledge of how to use language appropriately.

32. 32 It is believed that language learning will successfully take place when language learners know how and when to use the language in various settings and when they have successfully cognized various forms of competence such as grammatical competence (lexis, morphology, syntax and phonology) and pragmatic competence (e.g., speech acts). It is believed that language learning will successfully take place when language learners know how and when to use the language in various settings and when they have successfully cognized various forms of competence such as grammatical competence (lexis, morphology, syntax and phonology) and pragmatic competence (e.g., speech acts).

33. 33 In the case of foreign/second language learning, language learners are encouraged to deal with accomplishing actions, which are thought to help them acquire the target language. In the case of foreign/second language learning, language learners are encouraged to deal with accomplishing actions, which are thought to help them acquire the target language. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT) are the best known examples of such a theory. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT) are the best known examples of such a theory. In the CLT or TBLT classroom, students are expected to learn by performing tasks. In the CLT or TBLT classroom, students are expected to learn by performing tasks.

34. 34 Task-based Two broad types of tasks: real-world tasks and pedagogical tasks. Two broad types of tasks: real-world tasks and pedagogical tasks. A real-world task is very close to something we do in daily life or work. A real-world task is very close to something we do in daily life or work. Pedagogical tasks are those activities that students do in the classroom but that may not take place in real life. (information gap) Pedagogical tasks are those activities that students do in the classroom but that may not take place in real life. (information gap)

35. 35 Drawbacks Overemphasizes the role of external factors in the process of language acquisition and gives little importance to internal learning processes. Overemphasizes the role of external factors in the process of language acquisition and gives little importance to internal learning processes. Similar to the behavioristic view of language acquisition in that environmental factors and input are at the very center in attempting to explicate the acquisition process. Similar to the behavioristic view of language acquisition in that environmental factors and input are at the very center in attempting to explicate the acquisition process. Overstresses the role of knowledge of competence and functions in acquiring a language, and hence fails to notice universal principles that guide language acquisition. Overstresses the role of knowledge of competence and functions in acquiring a language, and hence fails to notice universal principles that guide language acquisition.

36. 36 2.2 Universal Grammar (UG) Noam Chomsky Noam Chomsky A native speaker possesses a kind of linguistic competence. A native speaker possesses a kind of linguistic competence. The child is born with knowledge of some linguistic universals. The child is born with knowledge of some linguistic universals. While acquiring his mother tongue, he compares his innate language system with that of his native language and modifies his grammar. While acquiring his mother tongue, he compares his innate language system with that of his native language and modifies his grammar.

37. 37 Input is poor and deficient in two ways. Input is poor and deficient in two ways. It is “degenerate” because it is damaged by performance features such as slips, hesitations or false starts. Accordingly, the input is not an adequate base for language learning. It is “degenerate” because it is damaged by performance features such as slips, hesitations or false starts. Accordingly, the input is not an adequate base for language learning. It is devoid of grammar corrections. It does not normally contain “negative evidence”, the knowledge from which the learner could exercise what is “not” possible in a given language. It is devoid of grammar corrections. It does not normally contain “negative evidence”, the knowledge from which the learner could exercise what is “not” possible in a given language.

38. 38 Vivian Cook wrote a whole book to account for second language acquisition based on Chomsky’s linguistic theory. Vivian Cook wrote a whole book to account for second language acquisition based on Chomsky’s linguistic theory. Although UG was not originally proposed to account for second language acquisition, many researchers are working on its implication for language learning and teaching. Although UG was not originally proposed to account for second language acquisition, many researchers are working on its implication for language learning and teaching.

39. 39 Drawbacks UG’s primary aim is to account for how language works, not acquisition. UG’s primary aim is to account for how language works, not acquisition. UG is only concerned with the core grammar of language (syntax). UG is only concerned with the core grammar of language (syntax). The communication function is discarded in UG. The communication function is discarded in UG. Chomsky is concerned only with ‘competence’, there can be little likelihood of SLA researchers carrying out empirical research. Chomsky is concerned only with ‘competence’, there can be little likelihood of SLA researchers carrying out empirical research.

40. 40 3. Syllabus Design A bridge between language teaching theory and language teaching practice. A bridge between language teaching theory and language teaching practice. Translates theoretical understanding of language teaching and sets up an operable framework for language teaching. Translates theoretical understanding of language teaching and sets up an operable framework for language teaching. The most important part of syllabus design is selecting and sequencing language items. The most important part of syllabus design is selecting and sequencing language items.

41. 41 3.1 Types of syllabus Structural Structural Situational Situational Functional/notional Functional/notional Communicative Communicative Task-based Task-based Content-based Content-based

42. 42 3.2 Components of a syllabus Aims/goals Aims/goals Objectives/targets/requirements Objectives/targets/requirements Non-language outcomes: affect cultivation (confidence, motivation, interest, etc.) Non-language outcomes: affect cultivation (confidence, motivation, interest, etc.) Learning strategies, thinking skills, interpersonal skills, etc. Learning strategies, thinking skills, interpersonal skills, etc. Implementation: approaches, methods, principles, suggestions, textbooks, etc. Implementation: approaches, methods, principles, suggestions, textbooks, etc. Assessment/evaluation Assessment/evaluation

43. 43 3.3 Current trends Co-existence of the old and the new Co-existence of the old and the new Emphasis on the learning process Emphasis on the learning process Inclusion of non-linguistic objectives Inclusion of non-linguistic objectives Emergence of the multi- syllabus Emergence of the multi- syllabus

44. 44 4. Contrastive Analysis A way of comparing L1 and L2 to determine potential errors for the purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what not. A way of comparing L1 and L2 to determine potential errors for the purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what not. Its goal is to predict what areas will be easy to learn and what will be difficult. Its goal is to predict what areas will be easy to learn and what will be difficult. Associated in its early days with behaviorism and structuralism. Associated in its early days with behaviorism and structuralism.

45. 45 4.1 Main assumptions Language is a habit and LL involves establishment of a new set of habits. Language is a habit and LL involves establishment of a new set of habits. L1 interferes with L2. L1 interferes with L2. Errors in L2 can be accounted for by differences between L1 and L2. Errors in L2 can be accounted for by differences between L1 and L2. Transfer occurs from L2 to L2, so similarities can be ignored. Transfer occurs from L2 to L2, so similarities can be ignored. Therefore, Therefore, Need for careful analysis of similarities and differences between L1 and L2. Need for careful analysis of similarities and differences between L1 and L2. Teachers should focus on areas of negative transfer. Teachers should focus on areas of negative transfer.

46. 46 4.2 Drawbacks Overemphasis on linguistic contrasts but lack of psychological considerations. Overemphasis on linguistic contrasts but lack of psychological considerations. Cannot predict all errors while some predicted errors do not occur. Cannot predict all errors while some predicted errors do not occur.

47. 47 5. Error Analysis S. Pit Corder S. Pit Corder Many errors made by L2 learners were caused by factors other than L1 interference. Many errors made by L2 learners were caused by factors other than L1 interference. Errors are not just to be seen as something to be eradicated. Errors are not just to be seen as something to be eradicated.

48. 48 5.1 Error and mistake Error: learner’s lack of knowledge/ competence Error: learner’s lack of knowledge/ competence Mistake: learner’s failure to perform their competence Mistake: learner’s failure to perform their competence

49. 49 5.2 Interlingual vs. intralingual Interlingual errors (transfer errors): misuse of an item because of L1 influence. Interlingual errors (transfer errors): misuse of an item because of L1 influence. Intralingual errors (developmental errors): within L2 (e.g. overgeneralization) Intralingual errors (developmental errors): within L2 (e.g. overgeneralization)

50. 50 5.3 Procedure of error analysis Recognition Recognition Description Description Explanation Explanation

51. 51 5.4 Problems Rely on errors to study how L2 is learned – inadequate. Rely on errors to study how L2 is learned – inadequate. Difficult to determine what an error is: Difficult to determine what an error is: There are so many people live around here. There are so many people live around here. Over-stresses production error but fails to account for error avoidance: learner avoids a certain word or structure. Over-stresses production error but fails to account for error avoidance: learner avoids a certain word or structure.

52. 52 6. Corpus Language corpora make it possible for materials developers to select authentic, natural and typical language. Language corpora make it possible for materials developers to select authentic, natural and typical language. The two most important factors in a corpus are the size and types of texts selected. The two most important factors in a corpus are the size and types of texts selected. Usually the uses that will be made of the corpus decide the number and type of texts in a corpus. Usually the uses that will be made of the corpus decide the number and type of texts in a corpus.

53. 53 6.1 Types General General Specialized Specialized Sample Sample Monitor Monitor

54. 54 6.2 Uses Frequency Frequency Context and co- text Context and co- text Grammatical Grammatical Collocation and phraseology Collocation and phraseology Pragmatics Pragmatics