CHAPTER EIGHT: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

Name: CHAPTER EIGHT: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD
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Description: CHAPTER EIGHT: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

CHAPTER EIGHT: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

I. THEORIES OF SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER EIGHT: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD I. THEORIES OF SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT Freud and Erikson’s psychoanalytic perspective offered key insights into the emotional components of development in the early childhood years Modern theorists have focused on the role of cognition Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

A. Psychoanalytic Perspectives
CHAPTER EIGHT: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD A. Psychoanalytic Perspectives Freud described two stages during the preschool years: The anal stage, is dominant between ages one and three The phallic stage occurs between ages three and five, during which the Oedipus conflict occurs, resulting in identification with the same-sex parent Healthy personality development required the presence of both parents in the home Freud suggested that to successfully resolve the Oedipus conflict, relationships between the child and both parents had to be warm and loving (continued) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

Psychoanalytic Perspectives (continued)
CHAPTER EIGHT: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD Psychoanalytic Perspectives (continued) Erikson’s stage of autonomy versus shame and doubt centres around the toddler’s new mobility and the accompanying desire for autonomy Both Freud and Erikson suggest that the key to this period is the balance between the child’s emerging skills and desire for autonomy, and the parents’ need to protect the child and control the child’s behaviour For Hartup, attachment relationships are necessary to provide the child with protection and security, but in reciprocal relationships, children practice social behaviour and acquire those social skills that can only be learned in a relationship between equals—cooperation, competition, and intimacy Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

B. Social-Cognitive Perspectives
CHAPTER EIGHT: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD B. Social-Cognitive Perspectives Social-cognitive theory: the theoretical perspective that asserts that social and personality development in early childhood are related to improvements in the cognitive domain Assumes that social/emotional changes are the result of, or at least facilitated by, the enormous growth in cognitive abilities that happens during the preschool years Person perception: the ability to classify others according to categories such as age and gender (continued) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

Social-Cognitive Perspectives (continued)
CHAPTER EIGHT: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD Social-Cognitive Perspectives (continued) Understanding Rule Categories Young children use classification skills to distinguish between social conventions and moral rules Understanding Others’ Intentions Young children understand intentions to some degree Children understand that intentional wrong-doing is deserving of greater punishments than unintentional rule transgressions Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

II. FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS
CHAPTER EIGHT: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD II. FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS Family relationships constitute one of the most, if not the most, important contributing factor to early childhood development These relationships reflect both continuity and change in that the preschooler is no less attached to his or her family than the infant but, at the same time, is struggling to establish independence Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

A. Attachment Attachment quality predicts behaviour during the preschool years—children who are securely attached to parents experience fewer behaviour problems Four- and five-year-olds who are securely attached to their parents are more likely than insecurely attached peers to have positive relationships with their preschool teachers Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

B. Parenting Styles Diana Baumrind focuses on four aspects of family functioning: Warmth or nurturance Level of expectations Clarity and consistency of rules Communication between parent and child (continued) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

Parenting Styles (continued)
CHAPTER EIGHT: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD Parenting Styles (continued) Maccoby’s Parenting Styles: Authoritarian parenting style: a style of parenting that is low in nurturance and communication, but high in control and maturity demands Permissive parenting style: a style of parenting that is high in nurturance and low in maturity demands, control, and communication Authoritative parenting: style a style of parenting that is high in nurturance, maturity demands, control, and communication Uninvolved parenting style: a style of parenting that is low in nurturance, maturity demands, control, and communication. This style produces the most consistently negative outcomes (continued) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

Maccoby and Martin’s Expansion on Baumrind’s Theories

Canadian Parenting Styles About 33% are authoritative They scored above average on all key measures of parenting practice Only 1 in 5 children had behavioural problems 25% were authoritarian 25% were permissive 15% scored low – similar to uninvolved Almost half of these children had behavioural problems (continued) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

Parenting and Child Discipline Discipline: training, whether physical, mental or moral, that develops self-control, moral character and proper conduct Two problems make if hard to identify effective discipline: Difficult to establish the effects of the discipline Intensity and frequency of discipline are hard to measure Different styles of discipline work on different temperaments of children (continued) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

Policy Question: How Should We Discipline Our Children? Research is equivocal: some studies link childhood spanking with adult problems, others do not When is discipline assault? Recent court cases have found care givers guilty of assault for ‘spanking’ January 2004: Supreme Court of Canada rules that physical force can be applied within ‘reasonable limits’ as a form of discipline, but does not allow: Hitting with objects Delivering slaps or blows to the face or head Using physical punishment on children under 2 years or over 12 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

C. Ethnicity, Socio-Economic Status, and Parenting Styles
CHAPTER EIGHT: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD C. Ethnicity, Socio-Economic Status, and Parenting Styles Parenting style may be dependent upon the cultural context in which parents and children live, so that as the cultural context changes the best corresponding type of parenting style changes with it Canadian studies have shown that parenting style is a better predictor of poor outcomes in a child than is a parent’s socio-economic status Good parenting practices are common in all SES levels, as are hostile/ineffective parenting practices Children raised in lower SES families are more likely to experience a greater number of risk factors and this, coupled with ineffective or hostile parenting practices, results in proportionally higher levels of vulnerability Refer to Figure 8.3 & 8.4 (next slides) pages 239 & 240 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

Risk Factors Associated with Problems at Age 2-3

Lone-parent Income and Negative Outcomes

III. FAMILY STRUCTURE AND DIVORCE
CHAPTER EIGHT: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD III. FAMILY STRUCTURE AND DIVORCE It is important to examine how the structure of children’s families may influence their development Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

A. Family Structure Despite increases in the number of single-parent households, the majority pattern in Canada continues to be the two-parent family The proportion of single-parent families in Canada exceeds that of some other industrialized societies Families are far more diverse than in the past The impact of lone-parenthood has different outcomes depending upon the age of the child Other Types of Family Structures Research on Grandparents raising children is limited Children raised in gay and lesbian families show no differences in cognitive or social development compared to other family structures Children’s development depends more on how parents interact than on any particular family configuration Refer to Table 8.1 page 241 and Figure 8.5 (next slide) page 242 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

High Stress, by Household Type

B. Divorce Divorce is generally traumatic for children Children are probably affected by a multitude of divorce-related factors such as: Parental conflict Poverty Disruptions of daily routine Children whose parents separate or stay in conflict-ridden marriages, even if they do not actually divorce, may experience many of the same effects Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

C. Understanding the Effects of Family Structure and Divorce
CHAPTER EIGHT: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD C. Understanding the Effects of Family Structure and Divorce Non-intact families seem to have negative effects for three key reasons: Single parenthood or divorce reduces the financial and emotional resources available to support the child Any family transition involves upheaval during which the parents often find it difficult to maintain good monitoring and control over the children Single parenthood, divorce, and step-parenthood all increase the likelihood that the family climate or style will shift away from authoritative parenting towards less optimal forms Extended families seem to serve a protective function for children who are growing up in single-parent homes Refer to Figure 8.6 (next slide) page 244 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

IV. PEER RELATIONSHIPS The child’s family experience is a central influence on emerging personality and social relationships, particularly in early childhood when a good portion of the time is still spent with parents and siblings Over the years from ages 2 to 6, relationships with non-sibling peers become increasingly important This is the critical period when brain development and function is most sensitive to social skills development Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

A. Relating to Peers Through Play
CHAPTER EIGHT: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD A. Relating to Peers Through Play Relating to Peers Through Play Solitary play Parallel play All ages of children 14 – 18 months Cooperative play 3 – 4 years old Social skills: a set of behaviours that usually lead to being accepted as a play partner or friend by peers Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

B. Aggression Physical Aggression (PA) Peaks at age 2 Indirect Aggression (IA) increases to age 11 Most children show declining levels of PA with low level IA between 2 and 8 years Most who are low on PA to begin with remain low on IA Boys and girls with high early PA levels usually show increasing IA over time A small percentage show declining PA with rising IA PA and IA almost always occur together The strongest predictor for high levels of PA and IA is a hostile parenting style Aggression: behaviour intended to harm another person or damage an object Instrumental aggression: aggression used to gain or damage an object Hostile aggression: aggression used to hurt another person or gain an advantage (continued) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

Aggression (continued)
CHAPTER EIGHT: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD Aggression (continued) Initial physical aggression shifts to indirect aggression As verbal skills improve As egocentrism declines As dominance hierarchies emerge Strayer shows that pecking orders of leaders and followers emerge as early as 3 or 4 years Knowing who can win or lose a fight reduces the actual amount of physical aggression Frustration makes aggression more likely, and toddlers and preschoolers are often frustrated; as life control increases, frustration decreases Modelling plays a key role in aggression Harsh, punitive parenting is linked with aggression Aggressive behaviour tends to run in families Refer to Figures 8.7 & 8.8 & 8.9 (next slides) pages 248 & 249 & 250 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

Physical and Indirect Aggression of Boys and Girls Across Childhood
CHAPTER EIGHT: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD Physical and Indirect Aggression of Boys and Girls Across Childhood Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

Child Behaviours: Witnessing Fights at Home

Changing Parental Practices Changes Behaviour

C. Prosocial Behaviour & Friendships
CHAPTER EIGHT: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD C. Prosocial Behaviour & Friendships Prosocial behaviour: behaviour intended to help another person Prosocial behaviour becomes evident by 2 or 3 years of age The role of empathy: One study shows girls to be more prosocial than boys Empathy is an important predictor of interpersonal closeness for both genders (continued) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

Prosocial Behaviour & Friendship (continued)
Parental Influences on Prosocial Behaviour Parents of altruistic children: Create a loving and warm family climate Provide prosocial attributions—statements about the cause of an event or behaviour Look for opportunities for their children to do helpful things Model thoughtful and generous behaviour, that is, they demonstrate consistency between what they say and what they do (continued) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

Prosocial Behaviour & Friendship (continued)
CHAPTER EIGHT: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD Prosocial Behaviour & Friendship (continued) Friendships An important change in social behaviour during early childhood is the formation of stable relationships: 18 months: early hints of playmate preferences or individual friendships Age 3: 20% of children have a stable playmate Age 4: more than half spend 30% or more of their time with one other child Having a stable friend in early childhood is related to social competence during the elementary years Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

V. PERSONALITY AND SELF-CONCEPT
CHAPTER EIGHT: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD V. PERSONALITY AND SELF-CONCEPT As young children gain more understanding of the social environment, their temperaments ripen into true personalities At the same time, their self-concepts become more complex, allowing them to exercise greater control over their own behaviour Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

A. From Temperament to Personality
CHAPTER EIGHT: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD A. From Temperament to Personality Temperament is reasonably stable over time 3- or 4-year-olds with difficult temperaments are more likely to show heightened aggressiveness, delinquency, or other forms of behaviour problems in school, as teenagers, and as adults Shy preschoolers are at risk of developing emotional difficulties later in childhood Inborn infant temperament constitutes the foundation of personality in later childhood and adulthood Transition to personality is influenced by parental responses to temperament Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

B. Self-Concept Categorical Self: The self-concept (and the concept of others) tends to focus on his or her own visible characteristics Emotional Self: The acquisition of emotional control is central to this stage Acquiring emotional control involves shifting control slowly from the parents to the child Parents who expect age-appropriate behaviours increase the switch to self control (continued) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

Self-Concept (continued)
Social Self: The toddler now begins to develop a variety of social “scripts” Sociodramatic play provides opportunities to take explicit roles, helping the child become more independent Children adjust to school in several different ways Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

VI. THE GENDER CONCEPT AND SEX ROLES
CHAPTER EIGHT: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD VI. THE GENDER CONCEPT AND SEX ROLES Gender concept: understanding of gender, gender-related behaviour, and sex roles Sex roles: behaviour expected for males and females in a given culture Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

A. Explaining Gender Concept & Sex-Role Development
CHAPTER EIGHT: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD A. Explaining Gender Concept & Sex-Role Development Social Learning Explanations: Theorists emphasize the role of parents in shaping children’s sex-role behaviour and attitudes Social-Cognitive Explanations: Kohlberg’s gender constancy theory asserts that children must understand that gender is a permanent characteristic (gender constancy) before they can adopt appropriate sex roles Gender schema theory: an information-processing approach to gender concept development that asserts that people use a schema for each gender to process information about themselves and others Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

B. The Gender Concept Gender identity: the ability to correctly label oneself and others as male or female Gender stability: the understanding that gender is a stable, life-long characteristic True gender constancy is the recognition that someone stays the same gender even though she or he may appear to change by wearing different clothes or changing their hair length Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

C. Sex-Role Knowledge The content of adult stereotypes is remarkably similar in cultures around the world Women are associated with gentleness, weakness, appreciativeness, and soft-heartedness Men are associated with aggression, strength, cruelty, and coarseness By age 3 or 4, children can assign occupation, toys, and activities to the stereotypic gender By age 5, children begin to associate certain personality traits with males or females Five- to six-year-olds, having figured out that gender is permanent, are searching for a rule about how boys and girls behave Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

D. Sex-Typed Behaviour Sex-typed behaviour: different patterns of behaviour exhibited by boys and girls Sex-typed behaviour develops earlier than ideas about sex roles Boy-boy and girl-girl interactions vary in quality Maccoby describes girls’ enabling style and boys’ constricting/restrictive style Cross-gender behaviour is tolerated more in girls than boys Sex-typed behaviour results from much more than just cultural modelling and reinforcement Refer to Figure 8.11 page 260 Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada

CHAPTER EIGHT: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

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