1. Teaching Every Student
Cluster 13
Modules 35 – 37
Dr. D. L. Sturgill

2. Focus Questions What are the characteristics of effective teachers?
When and how should teachers use instructional objectives and themes for planning?
In what situations would each of the following formats be most appropriate: lecture, seatwork and homework, questioning, and group discussion?
How does the teacher’s role vary in direct and constructivist teaching approaches?
What is your position on the “curriculum wars” in reading and mathematics?
How can teachers’ expectations affect student learning?

3. Overview of Cluster 13 I. Research on Teaching
II. The First Step: Planning
III. Teaching Approaches
IV. Differentiated Instruction
V. Diversity and Convergences in Teaching

4. What Would You Do? Review “What would you do?” on p. 553
How would you differentiate instruction for these very dissimilar students?
Do different philosophies of teaching provide different answers to this question?
How will you grade work if you have successfully differentiated instruction?

5. I. Research on Teaching
Who was the most effective teacher you ever had? What was it about this teacher that made her/him effective?
What do teachers need to know to be effective?

6. Characteristics of Effective Teachers
Clarity & Organization
The clearer the presentations/explanations, the more students learn
Warmth & Enthusiasm
Teacher enthusiasm correlated with student achievement
Teacher warmth and understanding associated with students liking the class (and the teacher)

7. Characteristics of Effective Teachers cont’d
Teachers’ knowledge
Complicated relationship between teachers’ content knowledge and student learning
Content knowledge aids in clearer presentations and organization

8. Knowledge for Teaching
Expert teachers have elaborate systems of knowledge
7 areas of professional knowledge:
Content knowledge
General teaching strategies
Curriculum—content and age appropriate
Subjects-specific knowledge
Learner characteristics including cultural background
The learning setting
Goals and purposes of teaching

9. II. The First Step: Planning
Which of the following maxims about teacher planning resonates with you, and why?
Time is of the essence
Plans are made to be broken
Don’t look back
A little planning goes a long way
You can do it yourself
One size fits all

10. Planning Planning influences what students will learn
Several layers of planning—year, term, unit, week, day
Plans reduce uncertainty in teaching
Over-planning is associated with less learning (Why do you think that is?)
Experienced teachers collaborate and learn from one another
Reflection is an important part of planning (Why?)
Planning: A creative problem-solving process (How so?)

11. Objectives for Learning
Instructional objectives: Intended learning outcomes
Three parts of behavioral objectives:
Describe the intended student behavior
List the conditions under which the behavior is to occur
Define the criteria for acceptable performance
Cognitive objectives—starting with the general: Begin by stating the objective in general terms and then structure the plan accordingly
What are the pros/cons of each approach?

12. Flexible and Creative Plans—Using Taxonomies
Bloom’s taxonomy: Classification system of educational objectives
The Cognitive Domain
The Affective Domain
The Psychomotor Domain

13. The Cognitive Domain Remembering (Knowledge)
Understanding (Comprehension)
Applying
Analyzing
Creating (Synthesis)
Evaluating

14. The Affective Domain Receiving Responding Valuing Organization
Characterization by value

15. The Psychomotor Domain
Voluntary muscle capabilities
The ability to perform a specific skill
Of relevance to a wide range of educators: Fine arts, vocational-technical education, special education, etc.

16. Planning from a Constructivist Perspective
Teacher and students make decisions together about content, activities, approaches
Teacher has overarching goals that guide planning

17. III. Teaching Approaches
Two teacher-centered approaches:
Expository Teaching
Direct Instruction
Expository teaching
Emphasis on meaningful verbal learning
Use of deductive reasoning
Begins with a general advanced organizer
Comparative
Expository

18. Teaching Approaches cont’d
Steps in expository teaching
Advance organizer
Present content in terms of similarities and differences using examples
Elaborate the advance organizer
Direct Instruction
Best for the teaching of basic skills
Relatively unambiguous tasks

19. Teaching Approaches cont’d
Rosenshine’s Six Teaching Functions
Review and check previous day’s work
Present new material
Provide guided practice
Give feedback and correctives
Provide independent practice
Review weekly and monthly

20. Seatwork and Homework Seatwork Seatwork often overused
Should follow the lesson and give students supervised practice
Homework
Remember that students need to understand the assignment!
Hold students accountable (i.e. check it!)

21. Questioning and Discussion
Types of questions:
Convergent—one right answer
Divergent—many possible answers
Fitting the questions to students
Different questioning patterns work better for students of differing ages or ability levels
Respond to student answers in a way that promotes learning
How should students be selected to answer questions?

22. Questioning and Discussion cont’d
Advantages of group discussion
Directly involves students
Disadvantages
Unpredictable
May digress into “exchanges of ignorance”
Making sure students have adequate background info may require a good deal of preparation
Overly dominant or disengaged students
What are some steps to prevent a few students from dominating a discussion?

23. Teaching Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic
Whole-language approach
“Authentic”
Guess meaning of unfamiliar words from context
Skilled-based approach (phonics)
Alphabetic coding and awareness of letter sounds are essential skills
Knowing meaning helps determine context
The best approach is probably in the middle

24. Conceptual Change Teaching Science
Six stages of conceptual change in students:
1) initial discomfort with own ideas
2) attempts to explain inconsistencies between their theories and the evidence
3) attempts to adjust measurements or observations to fit personal theories
4) doubt
5) vacillation
6) conceptual change

25. Conceptual Change Teaching Science cont’d
Two central features of conceptual change teaching:
Commitment to understanding (rather than “covering the curriculum”)
Encouraging students to make sense of science using their current understanding

26. IV. Differentiated Instruction
Basic idea of differentiated instruction: teachers must take into account not only the subjects they are teaching but also the students
What are the pros and cons of ability grouping?
What are the challenges of having students with disabilities in your classroom? In what ways is it beneficial to have students with disabilities in your classroom?
How can technology improve access for students with disabilities? How could it create barriers?

27. Within-Class and Flexible Grouping
Within-class ability grouping
Grouping students by ability within the same classroom
Concern: Ability grouping could lead to ability tracking
Concern: Students in lower-ability groups are less likely to be asked critical questions or to have choice
Flexible grouping
Grouping and regrouping based on learning needs
Continuous assessment to assure that students are always working within the Zone of Proximal Development

28. Differentiated Instruction in Inclusive Classrooms
Students with disabilities need:
To learn the academic material
To be full participants in the day-to-day life of the classroom
Students with disabilities benefit from:
Advanced organizers with emphasis on what they know and/or clear objectives
INCLUDE strategy

29. INCLUDE Strategy (Friend & Bursuck, 2002)
Identify environmental, curricular, and instructional demands of the classroom Note students learning strengths/needs Check for potential areas of student success Look for potential problem areas Use info gathered to brainstorm instructional adaptations Decide which adaptation to try Evaluate student progress

30. Teacher Expectations Expectations effects
Self-fulfilling prophesy—groundless expectation that leads to behavior that confirms the expectations
Sustaining expectations—initial assessment remains constant (fails to recognize new information)
Have you ever felt you were the subject of self-fulfilling or sustaining expectations as a student? How did it feel?

31. Teacher Expectations cont’d
Sources of expectations
Intelligence test scores
Gender
Notes from previous teachers
Med/psych reports
Knowledge about siblings
Appearance
Previous achievement
SES
Race & ethnicity
Actual behavior

32. Teacher-Student Interactions
Teachers with high expectations of students tend to:
Ask more questions, and more difficult questions
Allow more time and chances to respond
Provide more cues and prompts
Smile more and show greater warmth
Teachers with low expectations tend to:
Ask easier questions, and allow less time for answers
More likely to respond with sympathetic acceptance
Praise inadequate answers
Offer less genuine praise

33. Expectations: A Case Study
Vernita Lee is an African American student. She never knew her father. She lives with her mother who is on a very fixed income. Her medical file details physical and sexual abuse from relatives and family friends. What expectations would you have for this student?

34. A Case Study, cont.
Would you be surprised to learn Vernita Lee was an excellent student and that her real name is…

35. Oprah Winfrey

36. Diversity and Convergences in Teaching
Is it important for teachers to be aware of their own biases, strengths, and blind spots? If so, what suggestions do you have for teachers to discover their biases?