1. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 Chapter Two Speech Sounds

2. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 As human beings we are capable of making all kinds of sounds, but only some of these sounds have become units in the language system. As human beings we are capable of making all kinds of sounds, but only some of these sounds have become units in the language system. We can analyze speech sounds from various perspectives and the two major areas of study are phonetics and phonology. We can analyze speech sounds from various perspectives and the two major areas of study are phonetics and phonology.

3. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.

4. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 Articulatory Phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds. Articulatory Phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds. Acoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds. Acoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds. Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds. Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.

5. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to ‘ discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur ’. It aims to ‘ discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur ’.

6. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 In phonology we normally begin by analyzing an individual language, say English, in order to determine its phonological structure, i.e. which sound units are used and how they are put together. In phonology we normally begin by analyzing an individual language, say English, in order to determine its phonological structure, i.e. which sound units are used and how they are put together. Then we compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds in them, and Then we compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds in them, and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages. ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.

7. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 1. How speech sounds are made 1.1 Speech organs

8. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008

10. Position of the vocal folds: voiceless

11. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 Position of the vocal folds: voicing (initial & the widest aperture)

12. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 Position of the vocal folds: glottal stop

13. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 1.2 The IPA In 1886, the Phonetic Teachers ’ Association was inaugurated by a small group of language teachers in France who had found the practice of phonetics useful in their teaching and wished to popularize their methods. In 1886, the Phonetic Teachers ’ Association was inaugurated by a small group of language teachers in France who had found the practice of phonetics useful in their teaching and wished to popularize their methods. It was changed to its present title of the International Phonetic Association (IPA) in 1897. It was changed to its present title of the International Phonetic Association (IPA) in 1897.

14. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 One of the first activities of the Association was to produce a journal in which the contents were printed entirely in phonetic transcription. One of the first activities of the Association was to produce a journal in which the contents were printed entirely in phonetic transcription. The idea of establishing a phonetic alphabet was first proposed by the Danish grammarian and phonetician Otto Jespersen (1860-1943) in 1886, and The idea of establishing a phonetic alphabet was first proposed by the Danish grammarian and phonetician Otto Jespersen (1860-1943) in 1886, and the first version of the International Phonetic Alphabet (the IPA chart) was published in August 1888. the first version of the International Phonetic Alphabet (the IPA chart) was published in August 1888.

15. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 Its main principles were that there should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound, and that the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears. Its main principles were that there should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound, and that the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears. The alphabet was to consist of as many Roman alphabet letters as possible, using new letters and diacritics only when absolutely necessary. The alphabet was to consist of as many Roman alphabet letters as possible, using new letters and diacritics only when absolutely necessary. These principles continue to be followed today. These principles continue to be followed today.

16. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 The International Phonetic Alphabet (Revised to 2005) The International Phonetic Alphabet (Revised to 2005)

17. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008

24. 2. Consonants and vowels Consonants are produced ‘ by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction ’. Consonants are produced ‘ by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction ’. By contrast, a vowel is produced without such ‘ stricture ’ so that ‘ air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose ’. By contrast, a vowel is produced without such ‘ stricture ’ so that ‘ air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose ’.

25. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream. As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines. As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.

26. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 2.1 Consonants In the production of consonants at least two articulators are involved. In the production of consonants at least two articulators are involved. For example, the initial sound in bad involves both lips and its final segment involves the blade (or the tip) of the tongue and the alveolar ridge. For example, the initial sound in bad involves both lips and its final segment involves the blade (or the tip) of the tongue and the alveolar ridge. The categories of consonant, therefore, are established on the basis of several factors. The categories of consonant, therefore, are established on the basis of several factors.

27. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 The manner of articulation refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished: The manner of articulation refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished: the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; they may narrow the space considerably; or they may narrow the space considerably; or they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other. they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.

28. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 Stop (or Plosive) __ Oral & Nasal Stop (or Plosive) __ Oral & Nasal Fricative Fricative (Median) Approximant (Median) Approximant Lateral (Approximant) Lateral (Approximant) Trill Trill Tap or Flap Tap or Flap Affricate Affricate

29. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 The place of articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made. The place of articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made. Practically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal folds. Practically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal folds. Eleven places of articulation are distinguished on the IPA chart: Eleven places of articulation are distinguished on the IPA chart:

30. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 Bilabial Bilabial Labiodental Labiodental Dental Dental Alveolar Alveolar postalveolar postalveolar Retroflex Retroflex Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyngeal Glottal

31. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 2.2 Vowels Cardinal Vowels, as exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA chart, are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages. Cardinal Vowels, as exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA chart, are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.

32. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008

33. Jones: An Outline of English Phonetics (1918) Black: IPA Red: English

34. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008

36. The problematic area is that the initial sound in hot gives little turbulence, depending on how forcefully it is said, and in yet and wet the initial segments are obviously vowels. The problematic area is that the initial sound in hot gives little turbulence, depending on how forcefully it is said, and in yet and wet the initial segments are obviously vowels. To get out of this problem, the usual solution is to say that these segments are neither vowels nor consonants but midway between the two categories. For this purpose, the term ‘ semi-vowel ’ is often used. To get out of this problem, the usual solution is to say that these segments are neither vowels nor consonants but midway between the two categories. For this purpose, the term ‘ semi-vowel ’ is often used.

37. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 Languages also frequently make use of a distinction between vowels where the quality remains constant throughout the articulation and those where there is an audible change of quality. Languages also frequently make use of a distinction between vowels where the quality remains constant throughout the articulation and those where there is an audible change of quality. The former are known as pure or monophthong vowels and the latter, vowel glides. The former are known as pure or monophthong vowels and the latter, vowel glides.

38. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 If a single movement of the tongue is involved, the glides are called diphthongs. If a single movement of the tongue is involved, the glides are called diphthongs. Diphthongal glides in English can be heard in such words as way [we ɪ ], tide [ta ɪ d], how [ha ʊ ], toy [t ɔɪ ], and toe [t ə ʊ ]. Diphthongal glides in English can be heard in such words as way [we ɪ ], tide [ta ɪ d], how [ha ʊ ], toy [t ɔɪ ], and toe [t ə ʊ ].

39. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 A double movement produces a triphthong, which is ‘ a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third, all produced rapidly and without interruption ’. A double movement produces a triphthong, which is ‘ a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third, all produced rapidly and without interruption ’. They are really diphthongs followed by the schwa [ ə ], found in English words like wire [wa ɪ ə ] and tower [ta ʊ ə ]. They are really diphthongs followed by the schwa [ ə ], found in English words like wire [wa ɪ ə ] and tower [ta ʊ ə ].

40. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 2.3 The sounds of English Received Pronunciation (RP) Received Pronunciation (RP) General American (GA) General American (GA) English consonants English consonants

41. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008

42. The consonants of English can be described in the following manner: The consonants of English can be described in the following manner: [p] voiceless bilabial stop [p] voiceless bilabial stop [b] voiced bilabial stop [b] voiced bilabial stop [s] voiceless alveolar fricative [s] voiceless alveolar fricative [z] voiced alveolar fricative [z] voiced alveolar fricative

43. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 English vowels

44. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008

45. The description of English vowels needs to fulfill four basic requirements: The description of English vowels needs to fulfill four basic requirements: the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low); the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low); the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back); the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back); the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short), and the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short), and lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded). lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).

46. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 We can now describe the English vowels in this way: We can now describe the English vowels in this way: [  ]high front tense unrounded vowel [  ]high front tense unrounded vowel [  ]high back lax rounded vowel [  ]high back lax rounded vowel [  ]mid central lax unrounded vowel [  ]mid central lax unrounded vowel [  ]low back lax rounded vowel [  ]low back lax rounded vowel

47. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 3. From phonetics to phonology Speech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors. Speech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors. For example, map, lamb. For example, map, lamb.

48. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 3.1 Coarticulation When such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process coarticulation. When such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process coarticulation.

49. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation. If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation. If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation, as is the case of map. If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation, as is the case of map.

50. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 The fact that the vowel [  ] in lamb has some quality of the following nasal is a phenomenon we call nasalization. The fact that the vowel [  ] in lamb has some quality of the following nasal is a phenomenon we call nasalization. To indicate that a vowel has been nasalized, we add a diacritic to the top of the symbol [  ], as [  ]. To indicate that a vowel has been nasalized, we add a diacritic to the top of the symbol [  ], as [  ].

51. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 [  ] is aspirated in peak and unaspirated in speak. [  ] is aspirated in peak and unaspirated in speak. This aspirated voiceless bilabial stop is thus indicated by the diacritic , as [  ], whereas the unaspirated counterpart is transcribed as [  ]. This aspirated voiceless bilabial stop is thus indicated by the diacritic , as [  ], whereas the unaspirated counterpart is transcribed as [  ].

52. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a broad transcription. When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription. Both are phonetic transcriptions so we put both forms in square brackets [ ]. Both are phonetic transcriptions so we put both forms in square brackets [ ].

53. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008

54. 3.2 Phonemes Phonology is not specifically concerned with the physical properties of the speech production system. Phonology is not specifically concerned with the physical properties of the speech production system. Phoneticians are concerned with how sounds differ in the way they are pronounced while phonologists are interested in the patterning of such sounds and the rules that underlie such variations. Phoneticians are concerned with how sounds differ in the way they are pronounced while phonologists are interested in the patterning of such sounds and the rules that underlie such variations.

55. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 Crystal: ‘ Phonological analysis relies on the principle that certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phrase, whereas other sounds do not ’. Crystal: ‘ Phonological analysis relies on the principle that certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phrase, whereas other sounds do not ’. Minimal pairs test Minimal pairs test Phonemes Phonemes

56. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008

57. The word ‘ phoneme ’ simply refers to a ‘ unit of explicit sound contrast ’ : the existence of a minimal pair automatically grants phonemic status to the sounds responsible for the contrasts. The word ‘ phoneme ’ simply refers to a ‘ unit of explicit sound contrast ’ : the existence of a minimal pair automatically grants phonemic status to the sounds responsible for the contrasts. By selecting one type of sound instead of another we can distinguish one word from another. By selecting one type of sound instead of another we can distinguish one word from another.

58. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 Languages differ in the selection of contrastive sounds. Languages differ in the selection of contrastive sounds. In English, the distinction between aspirated [  ] and unaspirated [  ] is not phonemic. In English, the distinction between aspirated [  ] and unaspirated [  ] is not phonemic. In Chinese, however, the distinction between /  / and /  / is phonemic. In Chinese, however, the distinction between /  / and /  / is phonemic.

59. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 By convention, phonemic transcriptions are placed between slant lines (/ /) while phonetic transcriptions are placed between square brackets ([ ]). By convention, phonemic transcriptions are placed between slant lines (/ /) while phonetic transcriptions are placed between square brackets ([ ]). In phonetic terms, phonemic transcriptions represent the ‘ broad ’ transcriptions. In phonetic terms, phonemic transcriptions represent the ‘ broad ’ transcriptions.

60. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 3.3 Allophones [ ,  ] are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /  /. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme. [ ,  ] are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /  /. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme. In this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution because they never occur in the same context: In this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution because they never occur in the same context: [  ] occurs after [  ] while [  ] occurs in other places. [  ] occurs after [  ] while [  ] occurs in other places.

61. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 /  /  [  ] / [  ] _____ [  ] elsewhere [  ] elsewhere This phenomenon of variation in the pronunciation of phonemes in different positions is called allophony or allophonic variation. This phenomenon of variation in the pronunciation of phonemes in different positions is called allophony or allophonic variation.

62. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 Velarization: clear l and dark l Velarization: clear l and dark l / /  [ ] / _____ V [  ] / V _____ Think about tell and telling! Think about tell and telling!

63. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 Phonetic similarity: the allophones of a phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance. Phonetic similarity: the allophones of a phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance. Free variants and free variation Free variants and free variation

64. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 4. Phonological processes, phonological rules and distinctive features 4.1 Assimilation

65. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008

66. Nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all instances of assimilation, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound. Nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all instances of assimilation, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound. If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation; the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as progressive assimilation. If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation; the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as progressive assimilation.

67. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 English Fricative Devoicing

68. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 /v/  [f] /z/  [s] etc. /v/  [f] /z/  [s] etc. voiced fricative  voiceless / ____ voiceless voiced fricative  voiceless / ____ voiceless Nasalization rule: Nasalization rule: [-nasal]  [+nasal] / ____ [+nasal] Dentalization rule: Dentalization rule: [-dental]  [dental] / ____ [dental] Velarization rule: Velarization rule: [-velar]  [+velar] / ____ [+velar]

69. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 4.2 Epenthesis, rule ordering and the Elsewhere Condition a hotel, a boy, a use, a wagon, a big man, a yellow rug, a white house a hotel, a boy, a use, a wagon, a big man, a yellow rug, a white house an apple, an honor, an orange curtain, an old lady an apple, an honor, an orange curtain, an old lady Epenthesis (Insertion) Rule: Epenthesis (Insertion) Rule:

70. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 Plurals in English

71. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008

73. a. The [  ] appears after voiceless sounds. a. The [  ] appears after voiceless sounds. b. The [  ] appears after voiced sounds. b. The [  ] appears after voiced sounds. c. The [  ] appears after sibilants. c. The [  ] appears after sibilants. /  /  [  ] / [ – voice, C] _____ (Devoicing) /  /  [  ] / [ – voice, C] _____ (Devoicing)   [  ] / [+sibilant] _____ [  ] (Epenthesis)   [  ] / [+sibilant] _____ [  ] (Epenthesis)

74. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 Rule ordering

75. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 The Elsewhere Condition The Elsewhere Condition The more specific rule applies first.

76. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 4.3 Distinctive features The idea of Distinctive Features was first developed by Roman Jacobson (1896-1982) in the 1940s as a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds. The idea of Distinctive Features was first developed by Roman Jacobson (1896-1982) in the 1940s as a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds. Since then several versions have been suggested. Since then several versions have been suggested.

77. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 Some of the major distinctions include [consonantal], [sonorant], [nasal] and [voiced]. Some of the major distinctions include [consonantal], [sonorant], [nasal] and [voiced]. The feature [consonantal] can distinguish between consonants and vowels, so all consonants are [+consonantal] and all vowels [ – consonantal]. The feature [consonantal] can distinguish between consonants and vowels, so all consonants are [+consonantal] and all vowels [ – consonantal].

78. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 [sonorant] distinguishes between what we call obstruents (stops, fricatives and affricates) and sonorants (all other consonants and vowels), with obstruents being [ – sonorant] and others [+sonorant]. [sonorant] distinguishes between what we call obstruents (stops, fricatives and affricates) and sonorants (all other consonants and vowels), with obstruents being [ – sonorant] and others [+sonorant]. [nasal] and [voiced] of course distinguish nasal (including nasalized) sounds and voiced sounds respectively. [nasal] and [voiced] of course distinguish nasal (including nasalized) sounds and voiced sounds respectively.

79. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 These are known as binary features because we can group them into two categories: one with this feature and the other without. These are known as binary features because we can group them into two categories: one with this feature and the other without. Binary features have two values or specifications denoted by ‘ + ’ and ‘ – ’ so voiced obstruents are marked [+voiced] and voiceless obstruents are marked [ – voiced]. Binary features have two values or specifications denoted by ‘ + ’ and ‘ – ’ so voiced obstruents are marked [+voiced] and voiceless obstruents are marked [ – voiced].

80. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 The place features are not binary features – they are divided up into four values: The place features are not binary features – they are divided up into four values: [PLACE: Labial], [PLACE: Labial], [PLACE: Coronal], [PLACE: Coronal], [PLACE: Dorsal], and [PLACE: Dorsal], and [PLACE: Radical], [PLACE: Radical], which are often written in shorthand forms as [Labial]p, [Coronal]p, [Dorsal]p, and [Radical]p. which are often written in shorthand forms as [Labial]p, [Coronal]p, [Dorsal]p, and [Radical]p.

81. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008

83. A useful feature for consonants not found here is [±spread] (for ‘ spread glottis ’ ), which distinguishes between ‘ aspirated ’ and ‘ unaspirated ’ voiceless obstruents. A useful feature for consonants not found here is [±spread] (for ‘ spread glottis ’ ), which distinguishes between ‘ aspirated ’ and ‘ unaspirated ’ voiceless obstruents. Aspirated sounds are [+spread] and unaspirated sounds are [ – spread]. Aspirated sounds are [+spread] and unaspirated sounds are [ – spread]. Now we can represent the rule that governs the unaspiration of /p/ after [s] in terms of features: Now we can represent the rule that governs the unaspiration of /p/ after [s] in terms of features:

84. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 This is a more general rule, which also applies to /t/ and /k/. It means that /p, t, k/ ([ – voiced, – cont]) are all unaspirated ([ – spread]) after [s] and aspirated ([+spread]) in all other positions. This is a more general rule, which also applies to /t/ and /k/. It means that /p, t, k/ ([ – voiced, – cont]) are all unaspirated ([ – spread]) after [s] and aspirated ([+spread]) in all other positions.

85. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 Past tense forms in English stopped, walked, coughed, kissed, leashed, reached stopped, walked, coughed, kissed, leashed, reached stabbed, wagged, achieved, buzzed, soothed, bridged stabbed, wagged, achieved, buzzed, soothed, bridged steamed, stunned, pulled steamed, stunned, pulled played, flowed, studied played, flowed, studied wanted, located, decided, guided wanted, located, decided, guided

86. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 The regular past tense form in English is pronounced as [  ] when the word ends with a voiceless consonant, [  ] when it ends with a voiced sound, and [  ] when it ends with [  ] or [  ]. The regular past tense form in English is pronounced as [  ] when the word ends with a voiceless consonant, [  ] when it ends with a voiced sound, and [  ] when it ends with [  ] or [  ].

87. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 5. Suprasegmentals Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmentals are: The principal suprasegmentals are: Syllable Syllable Stress Stress Tone Tone Intonation Intonation

88. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 5.1 The syllable structure σ Onset Rime Onset Rime Nucleus Coda Nucleus Coda k r æ k t k r æ k t

89. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 Open syllable: bar, tie Open syllable: bar, tie Closed syllable: bard, tied Closed syllable: bard, tied English Syllable: (((C)C)C)V((((C)C)C)C) English Syllable: (((C)C)C)V((((C)C)C)C) Chinese syllable: (C)V(C) Chinese syllable: (C)V(C) Maximal Onset Principle (MOP) Maximal Onset Principle (MOP) When there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. When there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.

90. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 5.2 Stress Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line [  ] is often used just before the syllable it relates to. Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line [  ] is often used just before the syllable it relates to. A basic distinction is made between stressed and unstressed syllables, the former being more prominent than the latter, which means that stress is a relative notion. A basic distinction is made between stressed and unstressed syllables, the former being more prominent than the latter, which means that stress is a relative notion.

91. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 At the word level, it only applies to words with at least two syllables. At the word level, it only applies to words with at least two syllables. At the sentence level, a monosyllabic word may be said to be stressed relative to other words in the sentence. At the sentence level, a monosyllabic word may be said to be stressed relative to other words in the sentence.

92. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 Changing English Stress Pattern Becoming norm inTEGral inTEGral coMMUNal coMMUNal forMIDable forMIDable conTROVersy conTROVersy Considered conservative INtegral COMMunal FORmidable CONtroversy

93. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 RP RP laBORatory laBORatory DEBris DEBris GARage GARage GA LABoratory deBRIS gaRAGE RP vs. GA

94. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 Verb Verb conVICT conVICT inSULT inSULT proDUCE proDUCE reBEL reBEL Noun CONvict INsult PROduce REbel V vs. N

95. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 BLACKboard BLACKboard BLACKbird BLACKbird black BOARD black BIRD Compound Phrase Compound vs. Phrase

96. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 Primary vs. Secondary Stress epiphenomenal epiphenomenal unsatisfactory unsatisfactory discrimination discrimination standardization standardization communication communication industrialization industrialization

97. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 Sentence Stress John bought a red car. John bought a red car. JOHN bought a red car. JOHN bought a red car. John BOUGHT a red car. John BOUGHT a red car. John bought a RED car. John bought a RED car. John bought a red CAR. John bought a red CAR.

98. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 5.3 Intonation Intonation involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length. Intonation involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length. For example, the fall-rise tone in English typically involves the meaning of a contrast within a limited set of items stated explicitly or implicitly. For example, the fall-rise tone in English typically involves the meaning of a contrast within a limited set of items stated explicitly or implicitly.

99. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 (Isn ’ t her name Mary?) No /  Jenny (Isn ’ t her name Mary?) No /  Jenny The old man didn ’ t come / whereas the  young man / did come and actually enjoyed himself The old man didn ’ t come / whereas the  young man / did come and actually enjoyed himself  I didn ’ t do it  I didn ’ t do it

100. 崔建斌：语言学教程（第三版）， 2008 5.4 Tone