1. HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE
Class I

2. WHY THIS COURSE? Agriculture is important for India
62% population depend on agriculture
Contribution to GDP going down
TFP had been declining but now recovering
NSS Survey indicates 44% farmers want to quit farming
Investment in ag. R&D declining
Youth not attracted to agriculture
Situation likely to be alarming after 2025
New generation faces a big challenge
IARI students: Good in subject matter, poor in other sub.

3. Origin of Agriculture
Modern man (Homo sapiens) believed to have evolved from Homo erectus- 135, ,000 yrs ago
Most of this period lived in Nomadic existence in forest as hunters & gatherers of food
Process of domestication-10,000 yrs ago
Sign of plant cultivation-8th-7th millennium BC
Archaeological remains-wheat, barley, pea, lentils etc- near East- spread to Europe, West Asia & Nile valley
More sp. –domesticated
What motivated them to adopt: hunting to settled agri.?
People on diversified diet healthier than farmers

4. FOOD & AGRICULTURE Food – an essential need
Agriculture- prime source for food
History of agri.- co-terminus with civilization
History of Indian agri.- complicated & controversial
Absence of literary text for early period
Lit. available – post Gupta or early medieval era

5. Agriculture in India Earliest source- Arthashastra of Kautilya
Agri. is way of life, a philosophy & a culture
Agri. & herding under Revenue Admn.
Characterized by archaelogical evidences
Vindhya-Ganga region
North-west of Indian subcontinent
Hunting-gathering in late Mesolithic period to
Domestication of animals and cultivation of plants- 7-6th millenium BC

6. Agriculture in India
Indian subcontinent had 2 centres of farming of cereals :
North-west with barley-wheat complex (Mehrgarh)
Vindhya-Ganga region for rice: latter is earlier than former
Domestication of rice is found at Atranjikher & Lal Qila ( BC)
Rice-wheat-barley-legume agri. Established in Narhan & Imlikhurd by the end of 3rd millennium
Two crop a year started around this period

7. Agriculture in India Millets of African origin
-Introduced in India in 3rd millennium BC
-Associated with Harappan culture (2,500-2,000 BC)
-Came to middle Ganga plains by 1800 BC
Border land of Afghanistan-
- Domestication of animals and plants
Symbiotic development of sedentary agri. & pastoral nomadism- quite common in hills

8. Agriculture in India
Indus civilization- Well provided with development of Agri & animal husbandry
Higher precipitation
Irrigation
Cultivation of rice, wheat & barley
Use of chem. Fertilizers (Gypsum & CaSO4)
Raising two crops a year

9. Agriculture in India
Sixth century BC to 6TH century AD-Variety of sources:
-Pali, Sangam, Sanskrit
-Kautilya’s Arthsastra & Dharmsastra
Classification of land
Irrigation
Export of items-sugar
Taxes &
Medicinal & aromatic plants

10. Agriculture in India British Period :
Early medieval Period (600 AD to 1200 AD)
Agrarian structure
New type of tools & technology
Regional agri. –South India, Bengal & Gujarat
British Period :
-Initialy concerned with development
- Ignored agriculture
-Led to Bengal Famine

11. Origin of Agriculture- Hypothesis
Several hypotheses but debate continues as none of them wholly satisfactory:
Climate change- ice age-11,000 yrs ago- favourable environment for farming
Population pressure
Resource concentration from desertification
Land ownership
Natural selection
Greg Wadley & Angus Martin (1993)- cereals and milk contain ‘Exorphins’- drug like addictive properties

12. Origin of Agriculture
Origin of agri. Can’t be because of particular invention
Why it took so long to settle and cultivate?
Gifted individuals – hunting can’t go forever, let’s change- is it better way of life?
Change is not easy to humans- discarding old and adopting new, nevertheless
Change is difficult but change is must for progress

13. Domestication Hybridization and heredity- Mendel- modern crops
First domestication to modern crop production: wild sp. –HYVs – MVs- through selection
Grain size, colour, tolerance to drought, disease and insect pests
Creation of agrobiodiversity
Movement with people-
land races were created with variability
Natural and human selection for countless generations
Supported nearly 1 billion people in early 19th century
Hybridization and heredity- Mendel- modern crops

14. Crop Nutrition, Production and Protection
Application of chemical fertilizer in early 20th century
Humus-the main source of nutrition
Understanding of photosynthesis came much later
Pest management- balanced ecosystem BC botanical pesticidesused in China
Dams on river Nile in Egypt, Euphrattes and Tigris in Mesopotamia- Iraq
Irrigation practices- Mesopotamians evolved sophisticated irrigation system
Dams in Asia- Cauvery river in 1900 by Chola king
Farm implements- scratch plough –moldboard, sickles, spades and hoes

15. Modern Agriculture Till 18th century- traditional way
Scientific discoveries helped in modernization
Origin of Species – Darwin in 1859
Mendel’s law of inheritance
Leibig’s discovery in 1840 killed humus theory– chemical fertilizers industry in 1894
Steam engine in 1858
VISIT AGRICULTURE SCIENCE MUSEUM in NASC

16. Trends in food grain production in India
Production X5
Productivity X3
Area X0.25
Popln.400 M-1.2B
MT-710kg/ha
MT-629kg/ha
MT-827kg/ha

17. Transformation of Agriculture
Traditional to Modern

18. Triggers of Growth Science of Heredity-
Mendel :
Plant nutrient- artificial fertilizers
Liebig : 1840
Pest Management
Bordaux mixt. in early 20th century
Irrigation –
Early yrs. of 20th century
Mechanization-
Charles Hart & Charles Parr – Tractor in 1902

19. Traditional V/s Modern Agriculture
Small farm
Polyculture
Heterogenous germplasm
Little fertilizers &
chemicals
Minimum tillage
Varying period for fallow
Modern
Large & small farms
Monoculture
Uniform varieties/hybrids
Extensive use of fert/chem.
Appropriate/timely tillage
Intensive land use

20. Triggers of Growth Science of heredity- Mendel 1866, 1900
Demolished theories of inheritance
Concept of genes
Quantitative inheritance
Chemical fertilizers
Humus theory demolished- C bulk of dry matter from humus
Photosynthesis – CO2 + H2O = (CH2O) + O2
Liebig C from atmospheric CO2
Liebig’s patented manure- first inorganic fertilizers

21. Triggers of Growth
Modern fert. Industry-Liebig Phosphate, lime, magnesia & potash
Direct synthesis of Ammonia from N2 and H2 in Germany by Frit Harber in Nobel Prize in Chemistry
P form TSP from Phosphoric acid, 1st started in Germany in 1870s
K from KCl – Murate of Potash- Germany, Russia, US, Cnada
Global prodn- 100 million tonnes Nutrient mining- partial replenishment
China- the largest producer of N fert. Followed by US & India
Declining TFP- 18/28 MT. (gap of 10 MT fertilizer)
Balanced fert. Application - NPK & micronutrients- 4:2:1
Imbalanced application- leads to toxicity

22. Triggers of Growth Pest Management Organic pesticides Widespread use
Irish famine million died- P. infestans
Bordeaux distt.- mixture - CuSO4 +lime
Chinese – botanical pesticides
Organic pesticides
DDT in 1939 by Paul Muller at Geigy in Basel- Colarado potato beetle
Killed mosquitoes- saved thousands of lives
Most widely used
Organophosphorus compounds
Carbamates
Synthetic pyrethroids
Sulphonyl ureas
Widespread use
Developed countries kg/ha in 1961 to 1.30 kg/ha 2000
Developing countries-late starters in kg/ha in 2000
Pesticide residues
IPM

23. Irrigation Water availability Water demand Gravity & Arch dams
Increasing WUE
sprinkler
drip
micro irrigation

24. Indian Agricultural Research Institute
State-wise potential and actual area under micro-irrigation ( Area in 000 ha )
States
Drip
Sprinkler
Total
Potential
Actual %
Andhra Pradesh
730 50
387 52
1117 51
Gujarat
1599 11
1679 8
3278 9
Haryana
398 2
1992 26
2390 22
Karnataka
745 24
697 33
1442 28
Maharashtra
1116 43
1598 13
2714
Rajasthan
727
4931 14
5658
Tamil Nadu
544
158 17
702 23 UP
2,207
0.48
8582
0.12
10789
0.20
All India
11659 12
30578
42237
Total area under MI is currently 3.87 million ha against estimated potential of 42 million ha
Major crops-field crops (cotton, groundnut, sugarcane) to vegetables and fruits (banana, papaya, mango, grapes) and plantation crops

25. Mechanization Early yrs of 20th century in US India:
38% people engaged in Agri.
3-4% today
India:
,000 tractors
million machines
-largest producer of tractor 400,000 units in
-6,25,000 current yr. 2014
combines
Modern Agriculture:
Seeds, fertilizers, irrigation, chemicals, machines = Led to increased output

26. Impact of Modern Agriculture
Output of US agri. Doubled during
Scientific knowledge/technology
Land grant Universities
Resesrch
Education
Extension
European agriculture
Wheat yields-doubled in UK
New varieties
Improved agronomy
Modern farm inputs

27. Past and Projected Water Demand
Resources and Liabilities
Fresh Water Resources – 4 %
Land – 2.3 %
Population – 16 %
Rainfall – 1170 mm
Past and Projected Water Demand
Irrigation is the largest consumer of water and there is a great scope of increasing efficiency of irrigation.
Dr. S. Raman, New Delhi Winter School, 20/3/09
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28. Some Success Stories
Maize
Potato
Cotton
Soybean

30. Trends in food grain production in India
Production X5
Productivity X3
Area X0.25
MT-710kg/ha
MT-629kg/ha
MT-827kg/ha
MT-1921kg/ha

31. Production and productivity of rice in India

32. Production and Productivity of Wheat in India
Area X 2.5
Prodn.x 8.5
Prody x3
: 6.5 MT-663 kg/ha
: 11 MT kg/ha
: 730 kg/ha
: 10.4 MT-827kg/ha
: 21.8 MT-1172kg/ha

33. Production and productivity of maize in India
Prodn. x12
Yield x4
Area x3

35. Area covered during 2010 : 8.4 m ha
Bt Cotton in India
Area covered during 2010 : 8.4 m ha 35 35 35

37. Area, Production and Productivity in India
Year
Area
(m ha)
Production
(m t)
Yield
(t/ha)
% share in oilseeds area
% share in oilseeds production
0.032
0.014
0.426
0.19
0.14
0.61
0.44
0.728
3.46
4.69
2.56
2.60
1.015
10.60
13.97
6.42
5.27
0.822
27.61
28.64
9.60
12.74
1.327
35.27
39.22
10.18
12.28
1.207
38.50
40.92
10.70
14.67
1.37
40.29
42.80
334
1050
3.2

38. Area, Production and Productivity of Soybean around the World
Country
Area
(m ha)
Production
(m t)
Yield
(t/ha)
USA
30.91
91.42
2.96
Brazil
23.50
69.00
2.94
Argentina
18.60
54.50
2.93
China
9.19
14.98
1.63
India
10.70 IV
14.5 V
1.37 (40%)
Paraguay
2.68
7.20
2.69
World
102.17
260.85
2.55
Source: USDA, Foreign Agricultural Service-

39. GREEN REVOLUTION BREAKTHROUGH IN WHEAT IMPROVEMENT
WHY MODERNIZATION OF AGRICULTURE?
Class III

40. Population Growth 1 M yrs or more- 1st 8 Million people in 8,000 BC
10,000 yrs. – 1st 1,000 M by 1830
100 yrs nd 1,000 M by 1930
30 yrs rd 1,000 M by 1960
15 yrs th 1,000 M by 1975
25 yrs billion by early 21st century
billion Oct. (6.928 b on July 01)
billion

41. Global Population Explosion
Present Concerns:
First 4 million years
+ 4.5 bn ? bn
2.5 bn
Current: >7 billion
Poor: 1 billion (240 m in India)
Underweight Children:
Severely: 180 million
Chronically: 800 million
Vitamin A deficient: 200 million
Pregnant Women:
Anemia: 400 million
1/8 persons hungry
Source - Paroda, 2011

42. India’s Population 1951 1991 2001 846 mn 548 mn 361 mn 2050
1500 mn (expected)
1210 mn
2011
1028 mn
1971

43. Decennial Growth in Human Population
Graph
Ship-to-mouth
Life boat
Paddock Brothers’ Famine 1975

44. Developed Vs developing
Other Factors
Developed Vs developing
Increased longevity
Antibiotics in 1950s:
Penicillin
Chloromycetin
Industrial Revolution- strong production & distribution base for
Fert, pesticides, farm machinery
Knowledge & technology
Policy & investment
Developing countries followed the suit

45. Crop Yields (2009) Grain Prodn. MT Producty
_____________________________________
Maize /5.12
Wheat /3.2
Rice /4.2
___________________________________

46. Wheat Improvement in India
Domesticated in West Asia
Selection of land races by generations of farmers
Scientific breeding in early 20th century
North America, Europe, Russia, Japan & Australia
India at IARI- Pure line selection
Hybridization – grain quality & disease resistance- Dr. BP Pal & Assoc. –Leaders

47. Wheat Improvement in India-cont.
Started at IARI in Dr. BP Pal & associates-yield, quality & disease resistance
NP 700 & NP 800 series
NP 823- Early Maturing, good quality suitable for rainfed
NP 824- Good yield in plains & lower hills
NP 809- Resistant to 3 rusts & loose smut through hybridization
Ch. Ram Dhan & SM Sikka at Govt. Agri. College & Research Instt. Lyallpur (faislabad) developed C series wheat in Punjab - yield 3-4 t/ha
1947 av. Yield 700kg/ha – remained same for the last 40 yrs.

48. Low Productivity of Indian Wheat
Remedy of the Malady

49. Wheat Yield in India ______________________________________ Year Yield
:6.46 MT kg/ha
: 11 MT 851 kg/ha
kg/ha
: 10.4 MT kg/ha
: 21.8 MT kg/ha
Increase in yield not consistent

50. Wheat improvement - Yield barrier
20 varieties grown over 80 yrs. were analyzed (Kulshrestha and Jain , 1981)
Tall per decade for six deacdes-12
Dwarf -4 per decade-8
Evaluated for:
-grain yield
-HI
-# effective tillers/sq. m
-plant ht.
-grain wt
-total dry matter
Tall var. showed significant differences for 1st 4 characters but did not show significant difference in biol. yield & grain. Wt
K13 (Kanpur) and NP 165(IARI) showed significant but small improvement in yield
1940s, 50s & 60s no difference in grain yield despite concerted efforts
Significant difference recorded in var. of 1970s & 80s
Indian breeders struggled to break yield barrier over 60 yrs. But did not succeed

51. Wheat Improvement Response to fertilizer
Inadequate availability
Lack of infrastructure for prodn. & distribution
Attempt made to develop varieties for high soil fertility
Tall varieties (115 cm or more) lodged at high doses beyond 40 Kg/ ha Nitrogen
Need for breeding stiff strawed, lodging resistant coupled with disease resistance & quality
SP Kohli-Sr. wheat Breeder in early 1960s initiated work for identifying sources of dwarfing with stiff straw but rust resistance was top priority

52. Dwarf Wheat
IARI germplasm collection screened- none of them dwarf except 3 Italian varieties
Funo
Falchetto
Mara
Lodging resistant but susceptible to RUST- less used in breeding
rht8 gene for reduced plant height –identified in these varieties
Italians developed famous ARDITO & released in 1916
Was widely grown in Eastern Europe & South America

53. Dwarf Varieties HYV winter wheat –
Russian Scientist -PP Lukyanenko developed:
Bezostya
Kavkag &
Avrora
Great Britain
Little Joss (142 cm.) in 1908
Holdfast (126 cm.) in 1935
Capelle Desperz (110 cm) in 1935
Marris Huntman (106 cm) in 1972
Armada (97 cm) in 1978
USA
Honor (120 cm) in 1920
Eroga (85 cm.) in 1973
Did not havea robust source for dwarfing but succeeded in improving wheat yield over a long period in Western world

54. Dwarf Winter Wheat
Indian wheat breeders struggling to develop dwarf wheat varieties, scientists in Japan had found solution way back in 1930
Daruma- a land race- origin remains obscure – 1873
Daruma- registered as variety in 1900
Kihara & assoc. showed bread wheat – 3 sets of chr. in 1940s
Evolution of NORIN 10:
-Shiro(white) Daruma
-Aka (red) Daruma
Shiro Daruma X Glassy Fultz- an American wheat at Central Agricultural Experiment Station, Nishinghara & released Fultz Daruma
Fultz Daruma X Turky Red at Ehime Prefectual Experiment Station in The advance progeny of this cross yielded NORIN 10 in It was released in Oct by Inazuka

55. Dwarf Spring Wheat Norin 10- semidwarf winter wheat height of 52-55 cm
It received its dwarfing gene from Daruma- land race
selected by Japanese farmers
Standard source of dwarfing gene throughout world
Free from adverse effects on expression of yield contributing characters when placed in right genetic background
Short internodes reduced plant height without reducing length of earhead, # of spike bearing tillers, & # of grains/spike

57. Norin 10 In USA
Following occupation of Japan in group of scientists sent from USA to Japan
SC Salmon- Adviesr to USDA – sent Norin 10 to US
USDA distributed to wheat breeders-
Orville A. Vogel of Washington Agri. Exp. Stn., WSU, Pullman evolved 1st semidwarf, HYV carrying Norin 10 outside Japan
The variety Gaines gave a record yield of 14.5 t/ha under high fertility with large dose of fertilizers
Gaines, however, showed high proportion of sterile florets
Gaines crossed with Brevor- sterility was transferred to Norin 10-Brevor hybrid
Further selections led to Breeding lines free from sterility
Selection 14 crossed with 3 American varieties to introduce disease resistant genes
Gaines was 85 cm, Brevor 120 cm and Selection 146 cm height
Gaines showed no lodging but Brevor showed 20% lodging
Gaines – a winter wheat and could not be grown in subtropical conditions

58. Mexican Wheat
Norman Borlaug working at CIMMYT, Mexico got Norin 10-Brevor hybrid lines from Vogel
1st few crosses with elite Mexical lines – not successful due to rust
Successful crosses showed sterile florets, shrivelled grains, poor quality & susceptibility to rust
Sustained efforts for next 6 yrs- winter & spring gene pools different & showed considerable genetic divergence
Now Borlaug had Norin 10 in spring wheat background
Pitic 62 Inia 66
Penjamo 62 Tobari 66
Sonora 63 Ciano 67
Sonora 64 Norteno 67
Mayo 64 Cietoe Coros
Lerma Rojo 64 in 1966

59. Multilocation Evaluation

60. Mexican Wheat in India Rabi 1961-62 -Observational Nursery from USDA
Summer Multiplication at Wellington
Rabi Demonstration at IARI farm
Invitation to Borlaug to visit India & visits in March 1963
Rabi Multilocation Trial 4 places
Rabi Large Multilocation trails-155 places
1965- Two Mexican Lines Sonora 64 & Lerma Roho 64 A Released for Commercial cultivation by CVRC (CSCSNRV)

61. Area, Production and Productivity of Wheat in India
Area X 2.5
Prodn.x 8.5
Prody x3

62. Reduction in yield gap has been the main approach for increasing wheat production
Source: IARI/ ICAR network

66. Area covered during 2010 : 8.4 m ha
Bt Cotton in India
Area covered during 2010 : 8.4 m ha 66 66 66

67. Incidence of malnutrition among children (< 3 years)

68. Wide inter-regional variations in yield
State
Foodgrain yield, (t/ha) 1.
Punjab
4.0 2
Tamil Nadu
2.6 3
West Bengal
2.5 4
Uttar Pradesh
2.1 5
Bihar
1.7 6
Orissa
1.4 7
Madhya Pradesh
1.2
 Focus on high potential eastern & central region for immediate yield gains

69. Per capita net availability of foodgrains
(g/capita/day)