1. The Scientific Revolution Key Concepts

2. I. The Aristotelian Universe Derived from Ptolemy, Aristotle, and Plato Derived from Ptolemy, Aristotle, and Plato Classical Writings “ Christianized ” Classical Writings “ Christianized ” Components of Medieval Cosmology Components of Medieval Cosmology Medieval Physics Medieval Physics Belief in “ Matter ” and “ Form ” Belief in “ Matter ” and “ Form ” Earth = Living, Protected Sphere Earth = Living, Protected Sphere

3. The Aristotelian Universe -Aristotle proposed that the heavens were literally composed of 55 concentric, crystalline spheres -In each of these crystalline spheres, celestial objects were attached and which rotated at different velocities (but the angular velocity was constant for a given sphere), with the Earth at the center.

4. II. Scientific “ Revolutionaries ”

5. A. Copernicus (1473-1543) Aim to glorify God Aim to glorify God Sun-centered universe Sun-centered universe Challenged circular orbits Challenged circular orbits Universe of staggering size Universe of staggering size Earth no different than any other planet Earth no different than any other planet On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543) On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543)

6. B. Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) Most sophisticated observatory of his day Most sophisticated observatory of his day Arrogant nobleman Arrogant nobleman Remained an Aristotelian Remained an Aristotelian Discovered comet shooting right through crystalline spheres Discovered comet shooting right through crystalline spheres

7. C. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) Student of Brahe Student of Brahe Planetary motion conforms to mathematical formula Planetary motion conforms to mathematical formula Elliptical orbits Elliptical orbits Planets do not move at uniform speeds in their orbits Planets do not move at uniform speeds in their orbits

8. D. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) Early practitioner of the experimental method Early practitioner of the experimental method Mathematical formula for acceleration of falling objects Mathematical formula for acceleration of falling objects Law of inertia Law of inertia His discoveries using the telescope His discoveries using the telescope Challenges categories of “ form ” and “ matter ” Challenges categories of “ form ” and “ matter ” End of his life End of his life

9. E. Isaac Newton (1642-1727) Newton far from the perfect rationalist Newton far from the perfect rationalist A great synthesizer A great synthesizer Blends inductive and deductive methods Blends inductive and deductive methods Argues for a universe governed by natural laws Argues for a universe governed by natural laws Principia; Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687) Principia; Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687)

10. F. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) Father of the Scientific Revolution Father of the Scientific Revolution The Inductive Method The Inductive Method Emphasis on practical, useful knowledge Emphasis on practical, useful knowledge New attitude toward nature New attitude toward nature

11. G. Rene Descartes (1596-1650) Significance of Doubt Significance of Doubt The Deductive Method The Deductive Method Spatial relationships can be expressed in mathematical formulas Spatial relationships can be expressed in mathematical formulas Father of “ analytical geometry ” Father of “ analytical geometry ”

12. William Harvey (1578-1657) Research considered the origin of Physiology. Harvey explained notion of continual circulation of the blood. Research concluded that the heart acted as a pump to circulate blood through the body.

13. III. Causes of the Scientific Revolution Medieval Intellectual Life and Medieval Universities Medieval Intellectual Life and Medieval Universities The Italian Renaissance The Italian Renaissance Renewed emphasis on mathematics Renewed emphasis on mathematics Renaissance system of patronage Renaissance system of patronage Navigational problems of long sea voyages Navigational problems of long sea voyages Better scientific instruments Better scientific instruments

14. IV. Consequences of the Scientific Revolution Rise of the “ Scientific Community ” Rise of the “ Scientific Community ” --Royal Society of London (1662) --Academy of Royal Sciences (1666) The modern scientific method The modern scientific method A universe ordered according to natural laws A universe ordered according to natural laws

15. Scientific Method 1.Ask a Question 2.Do Research 3.Construct a Hypothesis 4.Test with an Experiment 5.Did it Work? 6.Analyze Data 7.Communicate Results

16. IV. Consequences of the Scientific Revolution (cont) Laws discovered by human reason Laws discovered by human reason “ De-Spiritualized ” and de- mystified the Universe “ De-Spiritualized ” and de- mystified the Universe Mechanical View of the Universe Mechanical View of the Universe Deistic View of God Deistic View of God --God as the cosmic capitalist

17. The Enlightenment “ Siecle de Lumiere ” “ The Century of Light ”

18. I. What was it? Progressive, Rationalistic, Humanistic worldview Progressive, Rationalistic, Humanistic worldview Emerged out of the Scientific Revolution and culminated in the French Revolution Emerged out of the Scientific Revolution and culminated in the French Revolution Spokesmen = Rising Middle Class Spokesmen = Rising Middle Class Paris = Center of Enlightenment Paris = Center of Enlightenment Optimism about mankind ’ s abilities Optimism about mankind ’ s abilities

19. II. Key Ideas Distrust of Tradition and Revealed Religion Distrust of Tradition and Revealed Religion Scientific method could be applied to society as well Scientific method could be applied to society as well Society can get better as risks are taken Society can get better as risks are taken Man is naturally good Man is naturally good Good life is on earth Good life is on earth

20. III. An Attack on the Old Regime

21. A. The World of the Old Regime Built on tradition Built on tradition World of hierarchy, privilege and inequality World of hierarchy, privilege and inequality Allied with the Church Allied with the Church Challenged by the reform impulse of supporters of the Enlightenment Challenged by the reform impulse of supporters of the Enlightenment

22. B. Conflict with the Capitalistic Middle Class Support for the Middle Class social order against the traditional social order Support for the Middle Class social order against the traditional social order Size and increasing power of the Middle Class Size and increasing power of the Middle Class New notion of wealth New notion of wealth Tension and discord created by the Middle Class Tension and discord created by the Middle Class

23. C. Popularization of Science The popularity of science in the 17 th and 18 th centuries The popularity of science in the 17 th and 18 th centuries Conversations on the Plurality of the Worlds (1686)—Bernard de Fontenelle Conversations on the Plurality of the Worlds (1686)—Bernard de Fontenelle The Scientific Revolution promised the comprehensibility of the workings of the universe The Scientific Revolution promised the comprehensibility of the workings of the universe

24. D. A New World of Uncertainties The Idea of Progress The Idea of Progress The anti-religious implications of the Enlightenment The anti-religious implications of the Enlightenment The relativity of truth and morality The relativity of truth and morality John Locke ’ s New Psychology John Locke ’ s New Psychology --Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) -- “ Tabula Rasa ”

25. IV. The Philosophes 18 th century French intellectuals 18 th century French intellectuals Interest in addressing a broad audience Interest in addressing a broad audience Committed to reform Committed to reform Celebrated the scientific revolution Celebrated the scientific revolution The “ Mystique of Newton ” The “ Mystique of Newton ” Science applied to society Science applied to society

26. V. The Problem of Censorship The attempt of the Old Regime to control new thinking The attempt of the Old Regime to control new thinking Publishers and writers hounded by censors Publishers and writers hounded by censors Over 1000 booksellers and authors imprisoned in the Bastille in the early 1700 ’ s Over 1000 booksellers and authors imprisoned in the Bastille in the early 1700 ’ s Battling censorship Battling censorship

27. VI. The Role of the Salon Protection and encouragement offered by French aristocratic women in their private drawing rooms Protection and encouragement offered by French aristocratic women in their private drawing rooms Feminine influence on the Enlightenment Feminine influence on the Enlightenment Madame Geoffrin Madame Geoffrin

28. VII. Diderot ’ s Encyclopedia Ultimate strength of the philosophes lay in their numbers, dedication and organization Ultimate strength of the philosophes lay in their numbers, dedication and organization Written between 1751- 1772 Written between 1751- 1772 Attempted to illustrate all human knowledge Attempted to illustrate all human knowledge Problems with publication Problems with publication Emphasis on practical science Emphasis on practical science

29. VII. Diderot ’ s Encyclopedia (cont) Desire to change the “ general way of thinking ” Desire to change the “ general way of thinking ” Greater knowledge leads to human progress Greater knowledge leads to human progress Emphasized moderation and tolerance Emphasized moderation and tolerance Human nature can be molded Human nature can be molded Inalienable rights and the social contract Inalienable rights and the social contract Knowledge improves goodness Knowledge improves goodness

30. VIII. Famous Enlightenment Thinkers

31. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) Social Contract Theory: Morality consists in the set of rules governing behavior, that rational people would accept, on the condition that others accept them as well. (1) there must be guarantees that people will not harm one another, and (2) people must be able to rely on one another to keep their agreements.

32. A. Baron de Montesquieu (1689- 1755) The Spirit of the Laws (1748) The Spirit of the Laws (1748) Despotism could be avoided if political power were divided and shared by a diversity of classes Despotism could be avoided if political power were divided and shared by a diversity of classes Power must check power Power must check power Admires British government Admires British government French parlements must be defenders of liberty French parlements must be defenders of liberty Influence in the US Influence in the US

33. B. Voltaire (1694-1778) Enthusiasm for English institutions Enthusiasm for English institutions Reformer not a revolutionary Reformer not a revolutionary Admirer of Louis XIV Admirer of Louis XIV Relationship with Frederick the Great Relationship with Frederick the Great “ Ecrasez l ’ infame ” “ Ecrasez l ’ infame ”

34. C. Baron Paul d ’ Holbach (1723- 1789) Deterministic view of human beings Deterministic view of human beings Free will, God and immortality of the soul are foolish myths Free will, God and immortality of the soul are foolish myths His views dealt the unity of the Enlightenment a severe blow His views dealt the unity of the Enlightenment a severe blow Other thinkers repelled by this inflexible atheism Other thinkers repelled by this inflexible atheism

35. D. David Hume (1711-1776) Human mind is nothing but a bundle of impressions Human mind is nothing but a bundle of impressions Reason cannot decipher anything about the origins of the universe or the existence of God Reason cannot decipher anything about the origins of the universe or the existence of God Hume ’ s rationalistic inquiry results in undermining the Enlightenment confidence in reason itself Hume ’ s rationalistic inquiry results in undermining the Enlightenment confidence in reason itself

36. E. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712- 1778) His life His life Turns his withering critique of the Old Regime increasingly on the Enlightenment itself Turns his withering critique of the Old Regime increasingly on the Enlightenment itself Rather than liberation, rationalism and civilization destroys the individual Rather than liberation, rationalism and civilization destroys the individual Man by nature was solitary, good and free Man by nature was solitary, good and free

37. E. Rousseau (cont) Civilization represents decay, not progress Civilization represents decay, not progress Emile—protect children from too many books Emile—protect children from too many books The Social Contract (1762) and the “ General Will ” The Social Contract (1762) and the “ General Will ” Civilized man is an alienated man Civilized man is an alienated man Transitional intellectual figure Transitional intellectual figure

38. F. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) One of few philosophes to live to see the French Revolution One of few philosophes to live to see the French Revolution Enlightenment was a personal process—release from immaturity Enlightenment was a personal process—release from immaturity More optimistic than Rousseau More optimistic than Rousseau “ Dare to Know ” — Enlightenment was an act of personal courage “ Dare to Know ” — Enlightenment was an act of personal courage

39. IX. Enlightened Despotism The manner of political reform The manner of political reform Frederick the Great of Prussia Frederick the Great of Prussia Catherine the Great of Russia Catherine the Great of Russia Joseph II of Austria Joseph II of Austria True reform or a cynical, manipulative consolidation of power? True reform or a cynical, manipulative consolidation of power?