1. THE CLAUSE ENGL 341

2. The clause A clause contains some form of a verb and subject in it Thus, the number of verbs in a sentence corresponds to the number of clauses in it We should therefore be able for a start to identify the number of clauses in the ff structures: Where your treasure is there will your heart be. We did not know that he would come today. When going to school I saw them. Should anything happen to him you will be blamed.

3. Classification A number of clauses may be identified based on three factors: Form of verb in a clause – finite clause, non-finite clauses The internal structure of the sentence containing the clause – dependent/ independent The grammatical function – nominal, relative, adverbial, comparative, etc.

4. Verbal types of clauses Based on the form of the verb in the clause we can classify finite and non-finite clauses Finite clauses: these are clauses which contain finite verbs Finite verbs are tensed – present or past tenses Example, the following are finite clauses because their verbs are finite – either in the past tense or present tense: He came yesterday They like your idea We are listening We will speak to him We have spoken early

5. Verbal types of clauses Non-finite clauses: these are clauses which contain non-finite verbs Non-finite verbs are forms of the verb when it is: A To infinitive form A Bare infinitive form An -ing participial form An -en/ed2 participial form Example, the underlined clauses are non-finite because their verbs are non-finite forms: When coming, take my work with you. Though beaten by the rain he went for the program. To do your will is my desire.

6. Structural types of clause Depending on the relationship of the clauses in the sentence, we can identify: Dependent/subordinate clause; and Independent/main clause Example in: – Before I went out this morning I prayed The 2 clauses (Before I went out this morning; and, I prayed) are related in the sense that whereas the 2 nd clause does not need the first clause depends on the second to make sense

7. Structural types of clauses Independent clauses are clauses which do not need any other clause to be complete and as a result, they can stand alone as a sentence example the underlined clauses are independent clauses: When we meet him, our problems will end. Come in if you like. She spoke while I wrote it. The say their prayers before they leave

8. Structural types of clauses Dependent clauses are the clauses which must be attached to independent clauses to be complete Example: the underlined clauses are dependent When it rains we will move to the completed building. As I suggested, we should be able to make money out of this After he had said that he sped off. Until we say something attractive he won’t come back.

9. Activity Determine the indep clauses and the dependent clauses in the ff structures: Police have killed dozens of exotic animals that escaped from a private zoo. Speaking on Wednesday, Mr F said police were surprised at the incident. Whenever he comes, tell him to see me. Identify whether independent clauses and dependent clauses are finite or non-finite We can make the following conclusions: That all independent clauses are finite That dependent clauses may be finite or non-finite

10. Clauses It is therefore redundant to refer to a clause as a finite independent clause But we can call: Finite clause (or independent clause) Finite dependent clause; and Non-finite dependent Identify the finite dependent clauses and non finite dependent clauses in the following They washed their hands before taking their meal. Because we are busy, we have put our phones on silent. Bring Kofi with you when you are coming back

11. Functional types of clauses Determine the grammatical functions of the following clauses: This is what I hate in my life. When confused about anything, just give me a call He whispered what no one could hear. The messenger who respects everybody has arrived This is the man I admire. Apart from verbal and structural classifications, clauses can also be classified based on their grammatical function Following functional types are identified: Nominal clause Relative clause Adverbial clauses Comparative clauses

12. Nominal clauses Determine the gram function of the underlined clause: What he said means a lot to me. They give what they do not need as gift. This is what he gave to us. They complained about what I said yesterday. These clauses perform noun functions subject, direct object complement, prepositional complement; besides they can be replaced by nouns or pronouns We call a clause which perform noun function a nominal clause

13. Nominal clauses Nominal clauses may be sub-categorised into 3 types: 1.that-clauses – they begin with the introductor ‘that’: example that you insulted your mother shocks me. he claims that you are his friend. 2.Interrogative clauses – they begin with the interrogators (which, who, whom, how, when, etc. what he said is not important When to get there is our concern 3.Non-finite clauses – these clauses contain a non-finite form of the verb. Example: to manage a business requires a great skill To do you will is my desire

14. Relative clauses Determine the function of the underlined clauses: Grammar is the course we like most. The lady who hops is my friend. Relative clauses perform the typical function of the adjective Two types of relative clauses are: Restrictive relative; and non-restrictive relative

15. Relative clauses Compare the relative clauses: The lady talking is my sister He gave it to the woman who is coming. Our lecturer who always comes late is absent today. We paid him an unannounced visit, which touched him greatly My mother who always compares me with my friends is visiting me today The ‘that’ relativiser can be elide as in The book you gave to me is missing The important distinction between a ‘that’ nominal clause and a ‘that’ relative clause is that the latter is replaceable by ‘which’, when referring to inanimate objects and by ‘who’, ‘whom’,

16. Relative clauses The absence of restrictive relative clauses leaves the noun phrases they modify incomplete/vague. As result of their function in making nouns specific, they are also referred to as defining clauses. Examples: The man who gives us feedback is dead The game everybody loves most is expensive The table that you bought is mine

17. Relative clauses Non-restrictive relative clauses add information that is not a necessary requirement for the completion of the meaning of a noun phrase. As a result of this quality they: can be left out of the sentence and the noun they modify can still be complete in its meaning. They are non-defining Examples: My dad, who always has a new story, is in town Aunty Aba, who studied English, is the new president

18. Adverbial clauses/adjuncts What grammatical functions do the underlined clauses perform: describe them. i.Because he has refused to sign it, I cannot use it. ii.Owing to the fact that no one came, I left early. iii.Should you come across him, let me know about it. iv.Immediately he saw us, he sped off. v.We will hold a class whether it rains or not. vi.She would do everything to help though she knows she is not strong vii.She said, while still running, that there is trouble.

19. Adverbial clauses They behave just like adverbs and so possess all the qualities of adverbs Based on the meanings, we can classify adverbial clauses into: Reason Purpose Place Time Concession Manner Result condition

20. Adverbial clause of reason: Because you have shown seriousness, you will definitely pass the exam. Since we have no problem with you, we will allow you to pass. I stopped teaching due to the fact that no one was listening Adverbial clause of purpose He read the grammar continually for fear he will fail the exams They rehearsed for so many days so they could produce a good play In order to attend the programme by all means she lied to her dad

21. Types of adverbial clause Adv cl of place We go wherever he goes. Where he went nobody can really tell Adv Cl of time: When he said it he was in his jovial mood He arrived immediately you left After he had insulted us, he wanted to sound friendly. As soon as, before, until, Adv cl of manner As you lay your bed so must you lie on it She left as we had expected

22. Clauses Concession: Though she is the most beautiful in the competition she wont win He did a splendid presentation though he was in a hurry Results We did our homework, so we got what we wanted They came early so that they were able to get front seats Condition We will come provided you don’t tell anybody If you close the door I will shout Should the light go off call the emergency line (read Wiredu on conditionals for the types)