1. The Cold War 1945 - 1991

2. The Cold War Why was it ‘cold’? Because there was no direct fighting between the USSR and the USA – just an awful lot of propaganda, posturing and war by proxy.

3. Communism Versus Capitalism CommunismCapitalism

4. Phase #1: Origins and early development

5. The early development of the Cold War o By 1945 the alliance between the USA, the USSR and Britain to fight and defeat Nazi Germany was breaking apart. o In particular, Britain and the USA were nervous about the territory in Eastern Europe (including Germany) that the ‘Red Army’ had captured as they drove the Germans back. o Their concern was that Stalin would use these countries as protection, by making them Communist countries like the USSR. o Stalin, on the other hand, wanted to create a ‘buffer zone’ of countries friendly to the USSR to protect it from invasion (the Germans had already tried twice in the twentieth century). He didn’t trust the USA or Britain, believing that they would have left the USSR to fight the Nazis alone if they could have. The delay over D-Day ‘proved’ this to him. o Stalin did not have a good track record when it came to things like human rights … o US President Truman believed that the democratic countries of Europe would need to work together to ‘contain’ the spread of Communism. Containment became the focus of US policy from 1947 – known also as the ‘Truman Doctrine’. NATO (1949) and the Marshall Plan (1947) were two ways they tried to do this. o In 1949, when Mao Tse Tung established a Communist government in China, it seemed as though Communism was spreading across Asia as well. This was the domino theory.

6. Europe divided by Winston Churchill’s ‘Iron Curtain’ (Fulton Speech, 1946) The division of Europe into two ‘blocs’, each with its own strategic alliances – NATO, (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) formed in 1949 and the corresponding Warsaw Pact, formed in 1955. Albania and Yugoslavia were ‘non-aligned’ Communist countries and Finland was not a Communist state, despite being part of the Warsaw Pact. Note the division of Germany; this was paralleled by the division of Berlin as well (via the Berlin Wall from 1961)

7. The world divided into ‘Eastern’ and ‘Western’ blocs The world divided into two ‘blocs’. The victory of Mao Tse Tung’s Communists in China and China’s subsequent economic and military development, combined with Stalin’s failure to support Mao until a Communist victory seemed certain, led to a split in the leadership of the Communist world. Kissinger in particular was able to exploit this, a policy maintained by Nixon.

8. M.A.D. – Mutually Assured Destruction designed to keep the peace The use of the atomic bomb by the USA on Japanese cities to end World War II led to a nuclear arms race and the threat of nuclear war and destruction as well as summits and agreements (such as the Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1968 and SALT I in 1972) to limit the development and deployment of nuclear weapons. Arguably, Reagan’s push to expand the USA’s nuclear arsenal and to develop the ‘Star Wars’ missile defence, pushed the over- stretched Soviet economy into collapse. Conservative historians credit Reagan with ending the Cold War for this reason.

9. Cold War historiography - causes TraditionalistsRevisionists 1940s and 1950s; influential into the 1960s Schlesinger McNeill Blamed the Cold War on Soviet expansionism and Stalin’s desire for world domination. Defenders of US policy of containment. Early: late 1950s. Influential: 1970s (aftermath of US ‘failure’ in Vietnam) Williams, Ambrose Cold War blamed on the US due to the post-WWII power of American capitalism and its demand for markets and raw materials. Marshall Plan seen as an attempt to introduce this into Western Europe. The USA was perceived as a hegemonic power and as establishing a form of economic imperialism. The USA misunderstood Soviet foreign policy coming out of WWII, saw the USSR as militarily ‘weaker’ and believed in its own omnipotence – this led it to ‘overplay’ its hand (Vietnam). The USSR perceived the USA and its allies as ‘untrustworthy’ before and during World War II. The Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact (1939) is seen as stemming from this. Radical revisionists from the left, such as Chomsky, emphasise the imperialist intentions of the USA. Radicals from the right see the USA as protecting the free world from Communist aggression.

10. Cold War historiography continued Post-revisionists Recent historiography 1970s, 1980s Gaddis, Taubman Focussed on the geopolitical origins of the Cold War. Looked at the role of events, perceptions and misconceptions and bureaucratic decision-making in the development of the Cold War. Identified internal contradictions within US foreign policy and saw this as complicating relations with the USSR. Post-1991, with (limited) access to the Soviet archives. Graebner, Leffler, Trachtenberg, Gaddis. Emphasises the conflicting ideologies of each superpower as the source of the Cold War and as influencing its subsequent development. Also views the competing interests of each side, especially in Europe, as a contributing factor – US national self- determination and stability; USSR security needs and ideology. Some historians argue that power was more important than ideology in Soviet foreign policy. Others see that the issue of the Cold War was really about Germany and that, after 1963 when the status of Germany was ‘normalised’, the Cold War began to decelerate.

11. Forward defence in action … The Korean WarThe Vietnam War

12. Phase #3: Détente

13. Definition of détente A French word meaning a release from tension. It describes a phase in the Cold War that began in 1969, reached its high point in 1972, began to decline by 1974 and was over by 1979.

14. Détente – when the superpowers tried to live together Early signs of détente include Kennedy’s favourable speech about the USSR, the ‘hotline’ installed between the Kremlin and the White House after the Cuban Missile Crisis (June 1963) and the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, signed in August 1963. Other signs of détente are the French and West German policies of independent diplomacy with the Soviet Union, including the German policy of ostpolitik.

15. Reasons for détente – the USSR A breakdown in relations between the USSR and China. This erupted into border fighting along the Ussuri River in March 1969. The USSR had caught up in the arms race (by 1969). West Germany agreed not to get nuclear weapons in 1969. The USSR wanted to increase trade with the West.

16. Reasons for détente – the USA Failure in Vietnam saw Nixon wanting to improve relations with the USSR and China to achieve a peace treaty. Public pressure to reduce the risk of war. The USSR had caught up in the arms race. The USA was concerned about a possible alliance between the USSR and China. Nixon’s move away from the Truman Doctrine towards peaceful co-existence as the basis for US foreign policy. Concern about Soviet support for Egypt and Arab Nations in the Yom Kippur War in 1973.

17. Reasons for détente - China Fear of isolation. In 1967 the PRC perfected the H bomb.

18. Common reasons for détente To reduce the risk of nuclear war. To reduce the costs of the arms race. Both countries had economic problems in the 1970s. Concern over conflict in the Middle East, potentially affecting oil supplies.

19. Challenges to détente The Prague Spring in 1968 was a temporary setback to moves towards détente. America’s on-going involvement in the Vietnam War (until 1973). The US policy of ‘linkage’ in foreign policy with the USSR. Nixon’s resignation over the Watergate scandal in August 1974. Soviet and Cuban involvement in the Angolan Civil War (1975) and interventions in Mozambique, Somalia and Ethiopia. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979)

20. Achievements of détente The European Security Conference 1973- 75 (the Helsinki Accords). Summit Conferences Human rights (the Helsinki Accords). Relations between the USA and China. Arms control. SALT I (1972) and SALT II (1979)

21. Why???

22. Phase #4: The ‘Second’ Cold War

23. Origins The belief that there was a second Cold War originates in the idea that détente began to decline from 1976 onwards. Soviet interventions in Angola, Somalia and Ethiopia, as well as Afghanistan, gave the US the impression that communism was becoming expansionist once more. This was reinforced by Brezhnev’s policy of building the USSR’s nuclear arsenal to achieve equality with the USA.

24. Origins continued … The USA was also seen as undergoing a decline in power as a result of Vietnam and the Iranian hostage crisis. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 confirmed suspicions about their expansionism. When SALT II was not ratified by either side, a new Cold War could be seen as having begun.

25. The ‘evil empire’ Ronald Reagan’s election in November 1980 also saw a renewal of hostile rhetoric. As early as 1981, Reagan spoke of the criminal, cheating behaviour which lay at the heart of communism. In 1982 he predicted Marxism would be left on the “ashheap of history” and described the USSR as “totalitarian evil”. In 1983 he described the USSR as an “evil empire”.

26. The arms race Reagan regarded the USSR as being on the brink of collapse but saw their growing military power and influence as a threat. He responded with funding of billions of dollars for the largest US military build up of the Cold War.

27. SDI – ‘Star Wars’ Reagan also announced the development of the Strategic Defence Initiative, a missile defence system. In part, this was a response to the 1983 Soviet installation of a puppet government in Poland and the gaoling of members of Solidarity. This was designed to push the Soviets into economic meltdown due to their commitment to mutual deterrence. The cost was to be $1.5 trillion over five years. The Soviets regarded this as a new, unacceptable threat.

28. START START stands for Strategic Arms Reduction Talks). Three meetings were held between 1983 and 1984. The meetings discussed reductions in strategic nuclear weapons, intermediate- range nuclear weapons and conventional forces in Europe. The Soviets walked out of the talks due to American demands. The USA looked to Gorbachev for results.

29. The INF and START I and II In 1987 the Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF) agreed to dismantle a range of missiles. Gorbachev agreed to inspections to verify the reduction. 1991’s agreement set a target of reducing missiles by up to one third. It was accompanied by large reductions in conventional forces in Europe. START II in 1993 saw further reductions in missile stockpiles.

30. Gorbachev, perestroika and glasnost Mikhail Gorbachev became the President of the USSR in 1989. Gorbachev wanted to reform and revive the USSR after the stagnation of the Brezhnev area. His means for doing this was through increased democracy, improved foreign relations, glasnost (cultural freedom and reduced censorship) and perestroika (economic restructuring). These terms were first used in 1984. Although relations with the West improved, the ultimate result of these policies was the end of communism and the collapse of the USSR. By mid-1989, many commentators believed that the Cold War had ended.

31. The collapse of the Eastern bloc In March 1989 Gorbachev announced the end of the Brezhnev doctrine. The USSR would no longer insist that Eastern bloc countries had governments favourable to the USSR. Opposition movements existed in almost all Eastern bloc countries. The most famous of these was Solidarity, a Polish unionist movement led by Lech Walensa.

32. The collapse of the Eastern bloc continued … In 1988 Hungary saw a change of leadership and the following year Soviet troops were withdrawn, with free travel allowed to Austria and the west. In 1990 a non- communist government was elected. Communism in Poland came to an end on August 24 1989, after free elections won by Solidarity that June. In January 1989, protests led to free elections and a change in government in Czechoslovakia. In November 1989, the Bulgarian communist leaders resigned and free elections were held the following year. In December 1989 a revolution in Romania saw the death of the dictator, Nicolae Ceaucescu and his wife. Free elections were held.

33. The Fall of the Berlin Wall By autumn 1989, thousands were fleeing East Germany via Hungary and massive demonstrations met Gorbachev on a visit there. When troops refused to fire on protestors, the East German leader, Erich Honecker, was forced to resign. On 10 November thousands of East Germans pulled down the Berlin Wall. In 1990 Communists were defeated in elections. Germany was reunited.

34. Why did opposition to the USSR grow in Eastern Europe? One party rule, the secret police and censorship were all resented. The economy did not produce enough for the population and what was produced was often of poor quality. Free enterprise was desired by many. By the 1980s there was economic decline throughout the eastern bloc. There was a desire for religious freedom Many East Germans wanted their own nation to be loyal to rather than Communism and the USSR.

35. The collapse of the USSR Gorbachev was arrested on August 18 1991 by a member of the KGB in an attempt by conservative communists in the USSR to seize power. The leaders of this coup announced on Soviet television that Gorbachev had had to resign due to ill health. Yeltsin, Gorbachev’s rival for power, led popular protests against the coup, which ultimately collapsed. Gorbachev was freed. In August 1991, the rule of the Communist party was over and by December the USSR ceased to exist. Its replacement, the Commonwealth of Independent States, contained only 11 of the 15 republics. On December 25, Gorbachev resigned as president of the USSR.

36. The collapse of the USSR continued … The USSR had begun to disintegrate as the eastern bloc collapsed, with republics like Lithuania being held in the Union by force. Gorbachev’s reforms had done little to improve life in the USSR. The economy continued to shrink. Gorbachev’s rival, Russian president Yeltsin, argued that there had not been enough reform. Conservatives were concerned about the impact of glasnost.

37. So who ended the Cold War? Reagan did Reagan pushed the USSR to economic and political collapse by starting a new arms race. He also started a war of words which helped to drive the USSR to the negotiating table. Gorbachev did Gorbachev’s reforms in the USSR and his foreign policy initiatives led to a ‘new détente’ which led to the end of the Cold War. By ending the Brezhnev doctrine, Gorbachev ended the Cold War

38. So who won the Cold War? Democracy and capitalism emerged as the victors of the Cold War. Most eastern European nations adopted democracy and a free market economy with the collapse of communism. Glasnost and perestroika had the unlooked for result of destroying both communism and the USSR. The USSR did not capitulate militarily but continued to compete with the USA at the same time as pursuing arms agreements

39. Key issues and features

40. Origins and development of the Cold War Rival spheres of interest Fallout of the Bolshevik revolution and the Civil War Stalin’s mistrust of the Allies Stalin’s desire for a ‘buffer zone’ of friendly states The ‘long telegram’ persuaded Truman of Soviet expansionism Churchill’s ‘iron curtain’ speech The US development and use of the atomic bomb Berlin blockade and airlift as first ‘crisis’ of the Cold War

41. Influence of the ideologies of communism and capitalism Comecon (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance -1949) and the Comintern (Communist Information Bureau -1947) The Warsaw Pact Rivalry between USSR and China over leadership of the communist world USSR’s support for North Korea and Cuba (Castro ‘becomes’ a Marxist) The Marshall Plan US involvement in Africa, Vietnam,Korea, Afghanistan Reagan’s ‘evil empire’ Churchill’s ‘Iron Curtain’ NATO Re-building West/East Germany The space race Brezhnev doctrine Kennan’s ‘Long Telegram’

42. Origins, nature and impact of detente Where? Mostly over Europe How? -Hotline between White house and Kremlin (1963) -Disarmament talks (especially SALT I [1972]and II) -Visits (eg: Nixon to China 1972), trade agreements and summits -Independent diplomacy by the French (with the USSR 1964; withdrew from NATO 1966) -Ostpolitik in West Germany (Willy Brandt) -Triangular diplomacy by the USA under Nixon -Relations began to ‘chill’ under Ford and Carter (human rights abuses by the USSR a key concern for him – ‘linkage’ as a diplomatic tool). -Ended with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 Who? USA and USSR as well as China Why ? Superpower conflict over Cuba (1962) and the replacement of Krushchev as well as the ‘Prague Spring’ (1968) When? 1968 - 1979

43. Changing policies, strategies and responses to the Cold War Truman doctrine and containment Domino theory/effect (Eisenhower) Triangular diplomacy (mostly Nixon) ‘Linkage’ over human rights for trade agreements (Carter) Peaceful co-existence (Krushchev – the 1950s). Brezhnev Doctrine Perestroika and glasnost (Gorbachev) and repudiation of the Brezhnev doctrine The ‘evil empire’ second arms race

44. Impact of crises on changing superpower relations Cuba (1962) Berlin (1948-9 and 1961) Afghanistan (1979) Korean War (1950-53) Hungary (1956) Suez (1956) Czechoslovakia (1968) Yom Kippur and Camp David (1973, 78)

45. The arms race and disarmament Salt II in 1979 1945 – first use of atomic bomb by USA 1949 – USSR’s first atomic bomb Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1968 SALT I in 1972 1980s- 2000s SDI system development 1987 – INF Treaty 1991 – START I START II 1993 CFE 1990 Partial Test Ban Treaty - 1963

46. Reasons for the end of the Cold War Reagan’s new arms race (especially ‘Star Wars’) placed demands on the Soviet economy as they struggled to compete, which led to the collapse of the USSR. Conservative historians use this as a reason to attribute the ending of the Cold War to Reagan and his policies Gorbachev’s program of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (reform) led to improved relations with the Western bloc, to arms agreements and, ultimately to the collapse of the Eastern bloc. Gorbachev’s reforms are seen by many historians as the reason for this and therefore the end of the Cold War. Disarmament talks and agreements took the ‘heat’ out of Carter and Reagan’s new push for ‘containment’ after the invasion of Afghanistan. Examples include the INF Treaty (1987) and START I (1991). Gorbachev’s rejection of the Brezhnev Doctrine (1989) allowed countries in the eastern bloc – East Germany and Czechoslovakia in particular - to detach themselves from Moscow.