1. Chapter 1 Themes in the Study of Motivation
Human Motivation
Chapter 1
Themes in the Study of Motivation

2. What causes behavior? Motivation theorists
Assume that for every behavior, there is cause
Goal is to identify those causes
Tend to be eclectic
Want to know what instigates behavior
Biology, learning, cognition
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3. Approach and Avoidant Causes
Biological basis for approach/avoidant behavior
Individual differences may be a result of inherited amounts of each system
Temperament: we approach life with a particular orientation that can affect everything we do and say
Dual nature: we are often being pulled in two directions (moves us forward or stops us in our tracks)

4. Approach and Avoidant Causes
Approach Causes
People do things because of something they want, desire, or need
Example: People eat because they are hungry.
Sometimes the want, desire, or need does not immediately give rise to a specific goal object
Avoidant Causes
People do things to avoid something
Example: People who have anxiety at a party may leave the party.
These things are not only aversive/noxious, they are also difficult/impossible to ignore

5. Eight Basic Themes of Contemporary Motivation Theories
Behavior represents an attempt to adapt to the environment
Importance of determining what arouses/energizes behavior
Understanding what governs the direction of behavior
Need theory: needs are what give direction to behavior
Goal theory: goals create a tension, and the individuals move toward the goals to reduce that tension
Understand persistence
One of the main predictors of success; grows out of intrinsic motivation
Reward theory: we are inclined to repeat behaviors that make us feel good (positive reinforcement) and discontinue behaviors that make us feel bad (negative reinforcement)

6. Eight Basic Themes of Contemporary Motivation Theories
Understanding the role of emotions
Affect theory: people approach things to experience positive affect and avoid things to guard against experiencing negative affect
Feelings are important determinants of behavior
Accounting for individual differences
Motivation theorists are interested in why individuals behave the way they do (biology, cognitions, learning)
Self-regulation of behavior
Learning to set attainable goals, manage negative emotions, focus attention; tendency to engage in planning
Motivational principles are the underlying reasons people self-regulate/achieve/take control
Humans have will (people can create their own destiny)
People are not mere products of biology or the environment

7. Theories of Motivation
Instinct theories: animals tend to behave adaptively; instincts provide the energy, direction, and persistence of behavior
Thomas Aquinas ( )
Humans have a dual nature- physical vs. nonphysical; body vs. mind
Humans- equipped with soul/rational thought
Animals- instincts cause behavior
René Descartes ( )
The body and the mind (will, soul) interact (at the pineal gland)
Humans could be held responsible for their moral actions
William McDougall ( )
Emotions give rise to instincts; shifted focus of understanding behavior to motivational constructs
Sigmund Freud ( )
Instincts viewed as an energy source, with the direction of behavior subject to some of the principles of learning and cognitions (libido)

8. Theories of Motivation
Evolutionary theory: members of a species with physical or behavioral attributes allow them to better deal with environmental pressures would survive and reproduce passing along this biological structure
Charles Darwin ( )
Behavior of animals and humans is caused by their underlying biology
Gregor Mendel ( )
Advanced idea of genetics

9. Theories of Motivation
Need theory: energy, direction, and persistence of behavior are due to the existence of needs
Henry Murray ( )
Humans can be characterized by a limited set of (psychological) needs; the Thematic Apperception Test was developed to measure these psychological needs
Abraham Maslow ( )
Hierarchy of needs (most basic (biological) needs met before moving up towards self-actualization)
Five Basic Personality Measures: extraversion (positive emotionality), neuroticism (negative emotionality), agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience (intellect)

10. Theories of Motivation
Learning theory: belief that behavior could be better explained by principles of learning than by instinct
John B. Watson ( ) (School of Behaviorism)
Concluded that there were only three innate emotional reactions: fear, rage, and love.
Clark Hull ( ) (Drive theory)
Energy for behavior is the result of drives; behavior is caused by the multiplicative effect of drives times habit (Behavior = Drives x Habits)
B. F. Skinner ( ) (Reinforcement Theory)
Behavior can be learned even if there is no biological drive reduction
Behavior modification: altering behavior based on the systematic applications of rewards

11. Theories of Motivation
Growth motivation theories: animals need to learn how to successfully interact with their environment; animals explore their environment to gain mastery over it
Mechanism that motivates growth and mastery is the discrepancy between where the individual is and where the individual needs to be to successfully adapt to the environment (tension)
Mastery- idea that humans need to process information and acquire skills

12. Theories of Motivation
Humanistic theory: humans are basically good and possess an innate (biological) tendency to grow and mature
Carl Rogers ( )
Organisms have one basic tendency- to “actualize, maintain, and enhance the experiencing self.”
Organismic valuation process- people have within themselves the capacity to judge what is good for them and what is not
Need to positive regard- the need to receive approval, to be accepted, and to be loved
Positive self-regard- internalized positive regard, helps in realizing potential

13. Theories of Motivation
Cognitive theory: mental representations formed by humans and animals play a central role in guiding their behavior
Roots in work done by learning, personality, and developmental theorists.

14. Theories of Motivation
Expectancy-value theory: people have expectations about whether they are likely to attain particular goals; people will choose the option with the best combination of expectancy and value.
Also called cognitive-choice or decision theories.
Expectancy- a judgment about the likely outcome of some behavior based on past experiences

15. Theories of Motivation
Goal-setting theory: humans can motivate themselves by setting future goals
Goals should be both difficult and specific
Unless we are committed to our goals, we will not put forth effort to achieve them.
Goals effect behavior in four ways:
They direct attention
They mobilize effort to the task.
They encourage persistence.
They facilitate the development of strategies.

16. Theories of Motivation
Social-cognitive theory of goal setting: people set specific attainable goals based on their feelings of self-efficacy
Self-efficacy: expectations that focus on their beliefs about their capabilities to organize and execute the behaviors requisite for attaining the outcome