© 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

© 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.
Jon Witt Alana Hermiston SOC ©2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson. All rights reserved. 2nd Canadian Edition . © 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

Learning Objectives 1. Identify and discuss the various elements of social structure. 2. Learn how the individual and social structure reciprocally shape one another. 3. Distinguish between ascribed and achieved statuses. 4. Develop an understanding of the effects of bureaucratic organization. 5. Learn how modern and traditional societies differ historically and globally. © 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

Elements of Social Structure
LO-1 Elements of Social Structure Social interaction: the ways in which people respond to one another How we interact with people is shaped by our perception of their position relative to our own Meanings we ascribe to others’ actions reflect norms and values of the dominant culture The ability to define social reality reflects a group’s power within a society. Social Interaction When we create culture, we establish a relationship with each other and to the external world. Social interaction refers to the ways people respond to one another. An example of this is Herbert Blumer’s view of the situation: the meanings we ascribe to others’ actions typically reflect the norms and values of the dominant culture and our socialization experiences within that culture. Our understanding of social reality is literally constructed from our social interactions. The ability to define social reality reflects a group’s power within society. Example: William I. Thomas’s definition of the situation – people respond to the objective features of a person as well as the meaning that person or situation has for them. © 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

LO-1 Elements of Social Structure Social Structure The way in which a society is organized into predictable relationships. Social structure can be broken into six elements: statuses, social roles, groups, social networks, virtual worlds and social institutions. Elements of Social Structure All social interaction takes place within a social structure—the way in which a society is organized into predictable relationships, which are composed of the various positions people occupy. Occupying those positions shapes how we think, what resources we have access to, and how we interact with others. © 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

LO-1 Elements of Social Structure Status refers to any of the full range of socially defined positions within a large group or society from the lowest to the highest. A person holds more than one status simultaneously Statuses • Status refers to any of the full range of socially defined positions within a large group or society. A number of statuses can be held at the same time. Examples: mother, business partner, neighbour, daughter. Discussion: Ask students to list their social statuses. How do the different statuses affect their behaviour? © 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

LO-3 Elements of Social Structure Ascribed status assigned to a person at birth by society Achieved status social position that is within our power to change Master status status that dominates others and determines a person’s general position in society Ascribed and Achieved Status Ascribed status is generally assigned at birth without regard to a person’s unique talents or characteristics. Examples: race, ethnicity, gender, age. Achieved status examples: lawyer, pianist, convict, social worker. A Master Status example would be: Tennis star Arthur Ashe contracting AIDS. Class task: Revisit list from previous discussion and organize statuses into ascribed, achieved and master. Once complete in groups of 3 share and compare results. © 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

LO-2 Elements of Social Structure Social role set of expectations for people who occupy a given social position or status Role conflict occurs when incompatible expectations arise from two or more social positions held by the same person or when individuals move into occupations not common among people with their ascribed status Social Roles Actual performance varies from individual to individual. Role Conflict Examples of role conflict: newly promoted worker who carries on a relationship with his or her former workgroup. Discussion: Male preschool teachers and female police officers often experience this type of role conflict. Discuss this statement. © 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

LO-2 Elements of Social Structure Role strain The difficulty that arises when the same social position imposes conflicting demands and expectations. Role exit process of disengagement from a role central to one’s self-identity in order to establish a new role and identity Role Strain Example: alternative forms of justice among Navajo police officers. Role Exit Helen Rose Fuchs Ebaugh’s four-stage model begins with doubt, second is the search for alternatives, the third is the action stage and the final stage is the creation of a new identity. Examples: graduating from high school, retirement, divorce. © 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

LO-2 Elements of Social Structure Group any number of people with similar norms, values, and expectation who interact with one another on a regular basis. Primary group small group – intimate face-to-face association and cooperation Secondary group formal and impersonal little social intimacy or mutual understanding Groups Any number of people with similar norms, values, and expectations who interact with one another on a regular basis. Examples: sports team, college or university sorority, hospital business office, symphony orchestra. Groups play a vital part in a society’s social structure. Primary and Secondary Groups Charles Horton Cooley coined the term primary group to refer to a small group characterized by intimate, face-to-face association and cooperation. Primary groups play a pivotal role in both the socialization process and the development of roles and statuses. Examples: family members, sorority sisters, members of a gang. © 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

LO-2 Elements of Social Structure In-group any group or category to which people feel they belong Out-group any group or category to which people feel they do not belong Conflict between in-groups and out- groups can turn violent on personal as well as political levels In-Groups and Out-Groups Comprises everyone who is regarded as “we” or “us.” An example of conflict between in-group and out-group is: School shooting in Taber, Alberta. Discussion: How did the “in group” and the “out group” operate in your high school? Are these groups evident in college? © 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

LO-2 Elements of Social Structure Reference groups any group individuals use as standard for evaluating themselves and their own behaviour Two basic purposes: enforce standards of conduct and belief serves as standard Coalitions temporary or permanent alliance geared toward common goal Reference Groups • Two basic purposes: (1) serve a normative function by setting and enforcing standards of conduct and belief, and (2) perform a comparison function by serving as a standard against which people can measure themselves and others. Coalitions Can be both broad based or narrow and take on many different objectives. They can be short-lived. Examples: popular TV shows (Survivor), political parties working together to bring down Parliament. © 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

LO-2 Elements of Social Structure Social Network series of social relationships that link individuals directly to others, and through them indirectly to still more people networking is valuable when job hunting Social Networks Can centre on virtually any activity. Examples: networking for employment; exchanging news and gossip. © 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

LO-2 Elements of Social Structure people can maintain social networks electronically virtual world participants can create an avatar collective action made possible through social networking potential of Internet is only just beginning can help preserve real-world networks interrupted by war and other dislocations Virtual Worlds Participants in virtual worlds typically create an avatar, which is their online representation as a character—can be a 2-D or 3-D image, or text. The avatar may represent a very different looking-glass self from a player’s actual identity. Just like the real world, virtual worlds have become politicized and consumer-oriented. Example: MySpace purchase by News Corp. Sociologists are now working to understand these environments and their social processes. Some suggest we are seeing only the beginnings of the collective action made possible through the social networking potential of the Internet. Virtual networks can help preserve real-world networks interrupted by war and other dislocations. Example: increasing reliance on by Canadian Forces personnel serving in Afghanistan. © 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

Shirky’s Four Steps Toward Increased Internet Interaction
LO-2 Shirky’s Four Steps Toward Increased Internet Interaction Source: Based on Shirky 2008. © 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

LO-2 Elements of Social Structure Social institution organized pattern of beliefs and behaviour centred on basic social needs Five Major Tasks (functional prerequisites) Reproduce membership Reproduce culture Produce and distribute goods and services Preserve order Provide and maintain a sense of meaning and purpose Social Institutions Examples of organized patterns of beliefs and behaviour are: family, government, religion. One way to view social institutions is seeing how they fulfill basic functions. This view emphasizes the importance of social order. This view identifies five major tasks or functional prerequisites: reproducing membership (primarily through biological reproduction, which takes place in families) reproducing the culture by teaching it to new members (through families and education) producing and distributing goods and services (through the economy) preserving order (through government) providing and maintaining a sense of purpose (historically filled by religion, but patriotism also plays a critical role) © 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

Social Institutions One way to view social institutions is seeing how they fulfill basic functions. This view emphasizes the importance of social order. Sociologists who focus on power, the consequences of difference, and resource distribution suggest that our construction of social institutions reinforces inequality, acting to maintain the privileges of the most powerful individuals and groups within a society. Example: Schools in Native communities being poorly equipped, as families often unable to engage in fundraising activities characteristic of schools located in more affluent areas. Others focus on our everyday interactions within the contexts of these institutions to understand why we think and act the way we do. © 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

LO-4 Bureaucracy Bureaucracy a component of a formal organization that uses rules and hierarchical ranking to achieve efficiency Bureaucracy Elements of bureaucracy enter into almost every occupation in industrial societies © 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

LO-4 Bureaucracy Max Weber emphasized the basic similarity of structure and process found in the otherwise dissimilar enterprises of religion, government, education, and business developed an ideal type of bureaucracy consisted of five basic characteristics Characteristics of a Bureaucracy Max Weber emphasized the basic similarity of structure and process found in the otherwise dissimilar enterprises of religion, government, education, and business. The ideal type of bureaucracy was to serve as a standard for evaluation, it consisted of five basic characteristics – division of labour, hierarchy of authority, written rules an regulations, impersonality, and employment based on technical qualifications. © 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

LO-4 Bureaucracy 1. Division of Labour Alienation - loss of control over our creative human capacity to produce, separation from the products we make, and isolation from our fellow workers Trained incapacity - workers become so specialized that they develop blind spots and fail to notice potential problems Division of Labour Specialized experts perform specific tasks, this has led to significant advances and innovation. Fragmenting work into smaller tasks isolates workers from one another and weakens connections they might have. Marx and Engels said this produces extreme alienation—loss of control over our creative human capacity to produce, separation from the products we make, and isolation from our fellow producers. Can also lead to trained incapacity—a situation in which workers become so specialized that they develop blind spots and fail to notice potential problems. Example: Failure to deal with warning signs of water contamination in Walkerton, Ontario. © 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

LO-4 Bureaucracy 2. Hierarchy of Authority – each position is under the supervision of a higher authority. 3. Written Rules and Regulations - goal displacement that is an overzealous conformity to official regulations. 2. Hierarchy of Authority Each position is under the supervision of a higher authority. 3. Written Rules and Regulations Offer employees clear standards for performance and procedure. Provide a sense of continuity for organizations. © 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

LO-4 Bureaucracy 4. Impersonality – Weber sees work as carried out sine ira et studio – “without hatred or passion” 5. Employment Based on Technical Qualifications Peter principle every employee within a hierarchy tends to rise to his or her level of incompetence (Peter and Hull 1969) 4. Impersonality Officials perform their duties without giving personal consideration to people as individuals. Example: Weber’s phrase sine ira et studio—without hatred or passion. Intended to guarantee equal treatment, but it also contributes to the cold, uncaring feeling often associated with modern organizations. 5. Employment Based on Technical Qualifications As opposed to favouritism; performance is measured against specific standards. People can appeal if they believe particular rules have been violated. Personnel decisions do not always follow the ideal pattern. Example: the Peter principle—every employee within a hierarchy tends to rise to his or her level of incompetence. © 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

LO-4 Bureaucracy Bureaucratization The process by which a group, organization, or social movement increasingly relies on technical-rational decision making in the pursuit of efficiency. Bureaucratization as a Way of Life The process by which a group, organization, or social movement increasingly relies on technical-rational decision making in the pursuit of efficiency. © 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

LO-4 Bureaucracy McDonaldization The process by which the principles of efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control shape organization and decision making. Weber thought the only way to beat bureaucratization was to become more bureaucratic The Spread of Bureaucratization George Ritzer argues these principles have been emulated by many organizations from medical care to wedding planning. Weber predicted that even the private sphere would become rationalized. He thought the only way to beat bureaucratization was to be more bureaucratic. When workers’ performance is measured only in numbers, emotional needs and family responsibilities are dismissed as irrelevant. © 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

Bureaucracy LO-4 Iron law of oligarchy A principle of organizational life under which even a democratic organization will eventually develop into a bureaucracy ruled by a few individuals. From Bureaucracy to Oligarchy Robert Michels originated the idea of the iron law of oligarchy. An example of this is labour union leaders becoming unresponsive to members. Actions that violate the core principles of bureaucracy can seep in. Ascribed statuses can influence how people are treated in formal organizations. © 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

LO-4 Bureaucracy Scientific management approach emphasizes maximum work efficiency and productivity through scientific planning of the labour process Human relations approach emphasizes the role of people, communication, and participation in a bureaucracy and tends to focus on the informal structure of the organization Bureaucracy and Organizational Culture Various schools of management arose in an attempt to establish meaningful relationships within the context of the workplace in order to enhance productivity. Classical theory Only physical constraints limit worker productivity; therefore, workers may be treated as a resource, much like the machines that began to replace them in the 20th century. Management attempts to achieve maximum work efficiency through scientific planning, established performance standards, and careful supervision. Planning involves efficiency studies, not studies of worker attitudes or satisfaction. This approach wasn’t revised until workers formed unions and forced management to recognize that they were not objects. Human relations approach Planning focuses on workers’ feelings, frustrations, and emotional need for job satisfaction. If managers are convinced that helping workers meet their needs increases productivity, care and concern are instituted as a result of rational calculation. © 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

Social Structure in Global Perspective
Gemeinschaft (guh-MINE-shoft) a close-knit community in which stron personal bonds unite members. Gesellschaft (guh-ZELL-shoft) a community that is large and impersoanl, with little commitment to the group or consensus on values. Social Structure in Global Perspective Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft Ferdinand Tönnies was appalled by the rise of industrial cities during the late 1800s. Gemeinschaft community is typical of rural life. People have similar backgrounds and life experiences. Social interactions are intimate and familiar. Social control is maintained through informal means such as moral persuasion and gossip. Social change is relatively limited. The Gesellschaft is characteristic of modern urban life. Most people are strangers and feel little in common with one another. Relationships are governed by social roles that grow out of immediate tasks. There is little consensus concerning values of commitment to the group. Social control rests on more formal techniques, such as laws and legally defined sanctions. Social change is a normal part of life. © 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

Mechanical solidarity - social cohesion based on shared experiences, knowledge, and skills in which things function more or less the way they always have, with minimal change. Organic solidarity – a collective consciousness that rests on mutual interdependence, characteristic of societies with a complex division of labour. Mechanical and Organic Solidarity For Durkheim the extent of division of labour that exists in a society shapes the degree to which people feel connected with each other. Mechanical solidarity - both social interaction and negotiation are based on close, intimate, face-to-face social contacts. Since there is little specialization, there are few social roles. Organic solidarity Durkheim chose this term because he believed that role specialization forces individuals to become interdependent in much the same way as the various organs of the human body: each performs a vital function, but none exist alone. Society can grow and adapt to change. © 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

Technology and Society Gerhard Lenski argued that a society’s level of technology is critical to way it is organized new social forms arise as technology changes © 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

Technology and Society
Preindustrial Societies Hunting-and-gathering societies people rely on whatever foods and fibers are readily available in order to survive Horticultural societies people plant seeds and crops rather than subsisting on available foods Agrarian societies primarily engaged in the production of food Pre-industrial Societies Hunting-and-gathering societies : technology is minimal. There is little division of labour. Horticultural societies plant seeds and grow crops rather than subsist only on available foods. Technology remains limited. Agrarian societies use technological innovations (e.g., the plough) to increase crop yields. Division of labour increases, social institutions become more established. © 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

Industrial society depends on mechanization to produce its goods and services rely on new inventions and energy sources individuals, villages, and regions become interdependent education emerges as social institution distinct from family due to need for specialized knowledge Industrial Societies Industrial Revolution transformed social life. Rely on new inventions that facilitate agricultural and industrial production, and on new sources of energy. © 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

Postindustrial Societies economic system is engaged primarily in the processing and control of information main output is services rather than manufactured goods large numbers of people become involved in occupations devoted to the teaching, or dissemination of ideas Post-industrial Societies Mechanized production continues to play a substantial role in shaping social order, but the economic system of a post-industrial society is primarily engaged in the processing and control of information. © 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

LO-5 Postmodern Life Postmodern society technologically sophisticated, pluralistic, interconnected, globalized society Four key characteristics Stories Images Choices Networks Postmodern Life Four elements provide a sense of the key characteristics of such societies. Stories People hold many different, often competing, sets of norms and values. Fewer people assume that a single, all-inclusive story (particular religious tradition, all-encompassing scientific theory) can unite everyone. Multiplicity of stories undercuts the authority that singular accounts of reality have had in the past. Images Importance of images is emphasized by the explosion of mass media. Our knowledge of what is real is always constrained by the images we construct. Choices We pick and choose our reality from the images and experiences presented to us. Examples: food, clothes, partners, jobs, identities. Networks Increasingly, all corners of the globe are linked into a vast, interrelated social, cultural, political, and economic system. © 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

LO-5 Postmodern Life Globally Interconnected World items we use on a daily basis were probably manufactured by people living on the other side of the world: books, food, clothes on-line courses – students can take on-line courses offered by colleges and universities world-wide news stories are delivered world-wide as they happen we can stay in daily contact with friends and family living world-wide Social Network: many people list hundreds of friends on their Facebook account Show the following clip: Is Social Media a Fad The clip looks at the Social Media Revolution , it provides an overview of the power of the social network. Discussion: All social interaction takes place with in a social structure. The elements of social structure are: statuses, social roles, groups, social networks, virtual worlds and social institutions. How are the elements of social structure changing? (ascribed, achieved, master status, social roles, etc should be addressed) Small Group task: Assign an element to each group – Ask them to identify how it has been influenced i.e.. Positive or negative changes and identify the impact. Examples: Job hunting .. Future employers checking Facebook for character information. © 2013 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. All rights reserved.

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