1. UNC, Sept. 26, 20051 Language Variation in Norway: Bokmål and Nynorsk Tore Nesset University of Tromsø, Norway

2. Europe

3. 3 Languages in the Nordic Countries Sami Norwegian Swedish Danish Finnish

4. UNC, Sept. 26, 20054 Two varieties of Norwegian: Bokmål (“Book language”) and Nynorsk (“New Norwegian”) 1.Relate to typology of linguistic variation 2.Describe and compare 3.Historical background

5. UNC, Sept. 26, 20055 Take-home message: The Bokmål-Nynorsk variation...... has nothing to do with communicative needs... has everything to do with cultural and political factors in past and present

6. UNC, Sept. 26, 20056 Typology of Language variation 1 Standard language Non-standardized language Explicit norms Codified in grammars and dictionaries Taught in school Implicit rules in speakers’ minds Not codified in grammars and dictionaries Acquired by children in natural environment

7. UNC, Sept. 26, 20057 Typology of Language variation 2 Variation among –Individuals (idiolects) –Groups Variation with regard to –Geography (dialects) –Social factors (sociolects) –Time (language change)

8. UNC, Sept. 26, 20058 Typology of Language variation 3 Standardization Group Non- standardized Standard Geography Social factors Time dialects sociolects Language change Bokmål and Nynorsk

9. UNC, Sept. 26, 20059 Part 2: Description and Comparison

10. UNC, Sept. 26, 200510 Two standard varieties Both are varieties of Standard Norwegian: –Explicit norms –Codified in grammars and dictionaries –Taught in schools Both are mainly used in writing: –Little tradition for normalized speech in Norway –Exceptions: News in TV/radio, theater

11. UNC, Sept. 26, 200511 Differences: Vocabulary English:Bokmål:Nynorsk: Wh itemshv... [v]kv [kv] Notikkeikkje Iegjeg wevivi/me You guysderede Theydedei Stillfremdelesframleis

12. UNC, Sept. 26, 200512 Differences: Derivational Morphology Affixes of Danish/German origin are not welcome in Nynorsk: –English:“Love”“Condition” –Bokmål:“kjærlighet”“betingelse” –Nynorsk:“kjærleik“vilkår”

13. UNC, Sept. 26, 200513 Differences: Inflection English:Bokmål:Nynorsk: a chairen stolein stol the chairstol-en chairsstol-erstol-ar the chairsstol-enestol-ane

14. UNC, Sept. 26, 200514 Differences: Inflection English:Bokmål:Nynorsk: a chairen stolein stol the chairstol-en chairsstol-erstol-ar the chairsstol-enestol-ane

15. UNC, Sept. 26, 200515 Differences: Syntax Passive sentences are formed differently: English:The house is being built. Bokmål:Huset bygg-es. Nynorsk:Huset vert/blir bygd.

16. UNC, Sept. 26, 200516 Bokmål and Nynorsk are similar 1 Both varieties overlap to a large extent: –Vocabulary –Derivational affixes –Inflection –Syntax Both varieties accept alternative forms, some of which are identical

17. UNC, Sept. 26, 200517 Bokmål and Nynorsk are similar 2 Eng:The lady is standing by the door. Bm:Damenstårveddøren. Nyn:Damastendveddøri. Bm/Nyn:Damastårveddøra.

18. UNC, Sept. 26, 200518 Bokmål and Nynorsk are similar 3 Nynorsk elements Bokmål elements Shared elements

19. UNC, Sept. 26, 200519 Legal status Both are official varieties Use regulated by law (of 1930/80, url):url –State employees shall use both varieties –Forms and information available in both varieties –At least 25% of each variety in correspondence and official documents –Monitored by the government

20. UNC, Sept. 26, 200520 Legal status 2 If an institution does not follow the law, it receives a letter from the government...... and has to promise to do better in the future. Example: University of Tromsø: http://uit.no/nyheter/tromsoflaket/2508

21. UNC, Sept. 26, 200521 Status in schools Regulated by law (url)(url) Parents choose the variety to be used in a school in referendums. If 10 pupils want the other variety, a separate group is established. In 9th-13th grade all pupils study both varieties (a “primary” and a “secondary”). Final exam in high school includes obligatory essays in both varieties.

22. UNC, Sept. 26, 200522 Pupils with Nynorsk as primary variety Source: Torp/Vikør: Hovuddrag i norsk språkhistorie, Oslo 2003, p. 208

23. 23 Core Area for Nynorsk Source: Torp/Vikør: Hovuddrag i norsk språkhistorie, Oslo 2003, p. 209 Rural west coast/ mountain area

24. UNC, Sept. 26, 200524 Summarizing part 2 Bokmål and Nynorsk are varieties of standard Norwegian. Large extent of overlap Use in government institutions enforced by law. Both varieties taught in schools. Nynorsk represents 15% minority. Nynorsk represents rural periphery.

25. UNC, Sept. 26, 200525 Typology of Language variation Standardization Group Non- standardized Standard Geography Social factors Time dialects sociolects Language change Bokmål and Nynorsk

26. UNC, Sept. 26, 200526 Part 3: Historical background

27. UNC, Sept. 26, 200527 Outline of Norwegian history 872-1380:Independent Norway 1380-1814:Danish rule 1814-1905:Union with Sweden 1905-:Independent Norway Old Norse flourishes Standard language: Danish Do we have a standard language? Bokmål and Nynorsk

28. UNC, Sept. 26, 200528 1814: A Nation without a Standard Language Strategy 1:“Norwegianize” Danish Problem:Sufficiently Norwegian? Strategy 2:Create a new Norwegian standard language based on dialects and Old Norse Problem:Practical? So what do we do? Both, of course!

29. UNC, Sept. 26, 200529 Ivar Aasen and the Creation of Nynorsk 1813-96 School teacher and self-taught linguist Born in Ørsta, Western Norway 1843-46:Collecting dialect material in southern Norway 1864:Norwegian grammar 1870:Norwegian dictionary

30. UNC, Sept. 26, 200530 Knud Knudsen and the Emergence of Bokmål 1812-95 High school teacher with degree from University of Oslo Born in Tvedestrand, Eastern Norway 1856:Handbook in Dano- Norwegian grammar

31. UNC, Sept. 26, 200531 Later development 1885:Parliament gives equal status to both varieties as standard varieties 1900-50:Attempts to bring the two varieties closer to each other 1950-65:Vehement protests among Bokmål supporters 1965-:Rapprochement policy abandoned

32. UNC, Sept. 26, 200532 Language and Identity The language question stirs up a lot of emotions. How come? Language is more than a means for communication. Language is associated with values, which individuals and groups may or may not identify themselves with. Language is part of speakers’ identity.

33. UNC, Sept. 26, 200533 Conclusions Bokmål/Nynorsk cannot be understood in purely linguistic/communicative terms. The situation is a product of cultural and socio-political historical developments...... And how these factors shape our identity.