1. Chapter 9 Motivation and Emotion

2. Motivation
Dynamics of behavior that initiate, sustain, direct, and terminate actions

3. A Model of Motivational Activities
Model of how motivated activities work
Need: Internal deficiency; causes
Drive: Energized motivational state (e.g., hunger, thirst); activates a…
Response: Action or series of actions designed to attain a…
Goal: Target of motivated behavior
Incentive Value: Goal’s appeal beyond its ability to fill a need

4. Types of Motives
Primary Motive: Innate (inborn) motives based on biological needs we must meet to survive
Stimulus Motive: Innate needs for stimulation and information
Secondary Motive: Based on learned needs, drives, and goals

5. Hunger: Big Mac Attack? Homeostasis: Body equilibrium; balance
Hypothalamus: Brain structure; regulates many aspects of motivation and emotion, including hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior
Lateral Hypothalamus: If turned on, an animal will begin eating; if destroyed, an animal will never eat again!
Ventromedial Hypothalamus: Stops eating behavior

6. Figure 9.2
FIGURE 9.2 In Walter Cannon’s early study of hunger, a simple apparatus was used to simultaneously record hunger pangs and stomach contractions.

7. FIGURE 9.3 Location of the hypothalamus in the human brain.

8. Figure 9.4
FIGURE 9.4 This is a cross section through the middle of the brain (viewed from the front of the brain). Indicated areas of the hypothalamus are associated with hunger and the regulation of body weight.

9. More on Eating Behavior (Hungry Yet?)
Neuropeptide Y (NPY): Substance in the brain that initiates eating
Glucagon-like Peptide 1 (GLP-1): Substance in brain that terminates eating
Set Point: Proportion of body fat that is maintained by changes in hunger and eating; point where weight stays the same when you make no effort to gain or lose weight

10. The Final Word on Eating Behavior
Leptin: Substance released by fat cells that inhibits eating
External Eating Cues: External stimuli that tend to encourage hunger or elicit eating; these cues may cause you to eat even if you are stuffed (like Homer Simpson, who eats whatever he sees!)

11. Behavioral Dieting
Weight reduction based on changing exercise and eating habits and not on temporary self-starvation
Some keys
Start with a complete physical
Exercise
Be committed to weight loss

12. Behavioral Dieting (cont'd)
Observe yourself, keep an eating diary, and keep a chart of daily progress.
Eat based on hunger, not on taste or learned habits that tell you to always clean your plate.
Avoid snacks.
Reward yourself if you change eating habits and punish yourself if you do not.

13. Taste Taste Aversion: Active dislike for a particular food
VERY difficult to overcome

14. Eating Disorders: Anorexia Nervosa
Active self-starvation or sustained loss of appetite that seems to have psychological origins
Control issues seem to be involved
Very difficult to effectively treat
Affects adolescent females overwhelmingly

15. Figure 9.6
FIGURE 9.6 Women with abnormal eating habits were asked to rate their body shape on a scale similar to the one you see here. As a group, they chose ideal
figure is much thinner than what they thought their current weights were. (Most women say they want to be thinner than they currently are, but to a lesser degree than women with eating problems.) Notice that women with eating problems chose an ideal weight that was even thinner than what they thought men prefer. This is not typical of most women. Only women with eating problems wanted to be thinner than what they thought men find attractive

16. Eating Disorders: Bulimia Nervosa (Binge-Purge Syndrome)
Excessive eating usually followed by self-induced vomiting and/or taking laxatives
Difficult to treat
Prozac approved by FDA to treat bulimia nervosa
Affects females overwhelmingly

17. Causes of Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa
Anorectics and bulimics have exaggerated fears of becoming fat; they think they are fat when the opposite is true!
Bulimics are obsessed with food and weight; anorectics with perfect control.
Anorectics will often be put on a “weight-gain” diet to restore weight.

18. Thirst and Pain
Extracellular Thirst: When water is lost from fluids surrounding the cells of the body
Intracellular Thirst: When fluid is drawn out of cells because of increased concentration of salts and minerals outside the cell
Best satisfied by drinking water
Pain Avoidance: An episodic drive
Distinct episodes when bodily damage takes place or is about to occur

19. Sex Drive
Estrus: Changes in animals that create a desire for sex; females in heat
Estrogen: A female sex hormone
Androgens: Male hormones

20. Figure 9.7
FIGURE 9.7 These graphs show the frequency of sexual intercourse for American adults. To generalize, about one third of the people surveyed have sex twice a week or more, one third a few times a month, and one third a few times a year or not at all. The overall average is about once a week

21. Sexual Behavior and Orientation
Erogenous Zones: Areas of the body that produce pleasure and/or provoke erotic desires (genitals, breasts, etc.)
Sexual Orientation: Degree of emotional and erotic attraction to members of the same sex, opposite sex, or both sexes
Heterosexual: Attracted romantically and erotically to the opposite sex
Homosexual: Attracted romantically and erotically to the same sex
Bisexual: Attracted romantically and erotically to both sexes

22. Human Sexual Response: Masters and Johnson
Sexual response can be divided into four phases that occur in the following order:
Excitement: Initial signs of sexual arousal
Plateau: Physical arousal intensifies
Orgasm: Climax and release of sexual tension
Resolution: Return to lower levels of sexual tension and arousal

23. Stimulus Drives
Reflect needs for information, exploration, manipulation, and sensory input
Sensation Seeking: Trait of people who prefer high levels of stimulation (e.g., the contestants on “Eco-Challenge” and “Fear Factor”)
Yerkes-Dodson Law: If a task is simple, it is best for arousal to be high; if it is complex, lower levels of arousal provide for the best performance

24. Figure 9.11
FIGURE 9.11 (a) The general relationship between arousal and efficiency can be described by an inverted U curve. The optimal level of arousal or motivation is higher for a simple task (b) than for a complex task (c).

25. How to Cope With Test Anxiety
Preparation
Relaxation
Rehearsal
Restructuring thoughts

26. Circadian Rhythms
Cyclical changes in bodily functions and arousal levels that vary on a 24-hour schedule
Preadaptation: Gradual matching of sleep-waking cycles to a new time schedule before an anticipated circadian rhythm change (e.g., trying to adjust to new time zone to avoid jet lag)

27. Figure 9.12
FIGURE 9.12 Core body temperature follows a circadian rhythm. Most people reach a low point 2 to 3 hours before the time they normally wake u
Page It’s no wonder that both the Chernobyl and Three-Mile Island nuclear power plant accidents occurred around 4 A.M. Rapid travel to a different time zone, shift work, depression, and illness can disrupt the body’s core rhythm, with disturbing effects

28. Figure 9.13
FIGURE 9.13 Time required to adjust to air travel across six time zones. The average time to resynchronize was shorter for westbound travel than for eastbound flights.

29. Learned Motives
Social Motives: Acquired by growing up in a particular society or culture
Need for Achievement (nAch): Desire to meet some internal standard of excellence
Need for Power: Desire to have impact or control over others

30. Abraham Maslow and Needs
Hierarchy of Human Needs: Maslow’s ordering of needs based on presumed strength or potency; some needs are more powerful than others and thus will influence your behavior to a greater degree
Basic Needs: First four levels of needs in Maslow’s hierarchy
Lower needs tend to be more potent than higher needs
Growth Needs: Higher-level needs associated with self-actualization
Meta-Needs: Needs associated with impulses for self-actualization

31. Figure 9.14
FIGURE 9.14 Maslow believed that lower needs in the hierarchy are dominant. Basic needs must be satisfied before growth motives are fully expressed. Desires for selfactualization are reflected in various metaneeds (see text).

32. Types of Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation: Motivation coming from within, not from external rewards; based on personal enjoyment of a task
Extrinsic Motivation: Based on obvious external rewards, obligations, or similar factors (e.g., pay, grades)

33. Emotions
State characterized by physiological arousal and changes in facial expressions, gestures, posture, and subjective feelings
Adaptive Behaviors: Aid our attempts to survive and adjust to changing conditions
Physiological Changes: Include heart rate, blood pressure, perspiration, and other involuntary bodily responses
Adrenaline: Hormone produced by adrenal glands that arouses the body
Emotional Expression: Outward signs of what a person is feeling
Emotional Feelings: Private emotional experience

34. Plutchik’s First Four Primary Emotions
Most basic emotions are:
Fear
Surprise
Sadness
Disgust

35. Plutchik’s Last Four Primary Emotions (cont'd)
Anger
Anticipation
Joy
Acceptance

36. Figure 9.15
FIGURE 9.15 Primary and mixed emotions. In Robert Plutchik’s model, there are eight primary emotions, as listed in the inner areas. Adjacent emotions may combine to give the emotions listed around the perimeter. Mixtures involving more widely separated emotions are also possible. For example, fear plus anticipation produces anxiety.

37. Figure 9.16
FIGURE 9.16 Folklore holds that people who work or attend school on a weekly schedule experience their lowest moods on “Blue Monday.” Actually, moods tend to be generally lower for most weekdays than they are on weekends. The graph shown here plots the average daily moods of a group of college students over a 5-week period. As you can see, many people find that their moods rise and fall on a 7-day cycle. For most students, a low point tends to occur around Monday or Tuesday and a peak on Friday or Saturday.

38. Brain and Emotion
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Neural system that connects brain with internal organs and glands
Sympathetic Branch: Part of ANS that activates body for emergency action
Parasympathetic Branch: Part of ANS that quiets body and conserves energy
Parasympathetic Rebound: Overreaction to intense emotion

39. Lie Detectors
Polygraph: Device that records heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and galvanic skin response (GSR); lie detector
GSR: Measures sweating
Irrelevant Questions: Neutral, emotional questions in a polygraph test
Relevant Questions: Questions to which only someone guilty should react by becoming anxious or emotional
Control Questions: Questions that almost always provoke anxiety in a polygraph (e.g. “Have you ever taken any office supplies?”)

40. Body Language (Kinesics)
Study of communication through body movement, posture, gestures, and facial expressions
Facial Blends: Mix of two or more basic expressions

41. Three Types of Facial Expressions
Pleasantness-Unpleasantness: Degree to which a person is experiencing pleasure or displeasure
Attention-Rejection: Degree of attention given to a person or object
Activation: Degree of arousal a person is experiencing

42. Figure 9.19
FIGURE 9.19 When shown groups of simplified faces (without labels), the angry and scheming faces “jumped out” at people faster than sad, happy, or neutral faces. An ability to rapidly detect threatening expressions probably helped our ancestors survive.

43. Theories of Emotion
James-Lange Theory: Emotional feelings follow bodily arousal and come from awareness of such arousal.
Cannon-Bard Theory: The thalamus (in brain) causes emotional feelings and bodily arousal to occur at the same time.
Schachter’s Cognitive Theory: Emotions occur when a label is applied to general physical arousal.
Attribution: Mental process of assigning causes to events; attributing arousal to a certain source.
Facial Feedback Hypothesis: Sensations from facial expressions and help define what emotion someone feels.

44. FIGURE 9.21 Theories of emotion.

45. A Modern View of Emotion
Emotional Appraisal: Evaluating personal meaning of a stimulus
Emotional Intelligence: Combination of skills, including empathy, self-control, self-awareness, sensitivity to feelings of others, persistence, and self-motivation

46. FIGURE 9.23 A contemporary model of emotion.

47. Happiness
Subjective Well-Being (SWB): When people are satisfied with their lives, have frequent positive emotions, and have relatively few negative emotions
Are these factors related to happiness?
Wealth: No relation
Education: Not really
Marriage: Not really
Religion: Minimally

48. Happiness Factors (cont'd)
Aging: Happiness does not decline with age.
Sex: Men and women do not differ in happiness.
Work: No.
Personality: If you have a “sunny disposition,” you are more likely to be happy.