1. Instructional Strategies
Chapter Thirteen
Educational Psychology: Developing Learners 6th edition
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod

2. Planning and carrying out instruction is part of an interdependent network.
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Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

3. Overview of Instructional Strategies
Instructional strategies can be subdivided into teacher-directed and learner-directed instruction:
Teacher-directed instruction
Teacher sets up and directs most if not all aspects of class instruction, objectives, etc.
Learner-directed instruction
Students have considerable say in the issues addressed in class as well as how to address them.
This type of instruction is more interactive, hands-on, and collaborative.
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Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

4. Instructional Planning
An effective classroom does not just “happen.” It is the result of considerable advance planning.
Teachers with effective classrooms
Identify the knowledge and skills they want students to acquire
Determine an appropriate sequence of learning activities
Develop activities that promote maximal learning and keep students motivated and on-task
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Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

5. Identifying the Goals of Instruction
An instructional goal is a desired long-term outcome of instruction.
An instructional objective is the desired outcome of a lesson or unit.
Objectives should be what helps you and your students reach your goal.
Students should be told what the objectives of a lesson are.
This helps them focus their attention, allocate their study time, and more effectively use metacognitive strategies.
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Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

6. Formulating Useful Goals & Objectives
Goals and objectives should be as clear as possible and give us concrete guidance.
Include goals at varying degrees of complexity and sophistication
Bloom’s taxonomy can help broaden our view of what students should learn.
Focus on what students should do, not on what teachers should do
Describe the ultimate outcomes of instruction
Identify both short-term and long-term goals
Provide opportunities for students to identify their own goals and objectives
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Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

7. Examples of Useful Objectives
“The student will identify the main thesis or argument in a scholarly paper.”
“The students will demonstrate effective ways of kicking, dribbling, and passing the ball.”
"Given a sentence written in the future tense, the student will be able to rewrite the sentence in the past tense with no errors.”
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Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

8. Developing a Lesson Plan
A lesson plan should include the following:
The goal(s) or objective(s) of the lesson
Instructional strategies and the sequence in which they will be used
Instructional materials required
Assessment method(s) planned
Reviewing a lesson plan allows the teacher to determine if goals or objectives are (for example) realistic, too simplistic, etc.
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Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

9. Conducting a Task Analysis
A task analysis can help break down a large instructional task.
It analyzes the components of the task and identifies the specific knowledge, behaviors, or cognitive processes necessary to master the skill.
The three general approaches to a task analysis are:
Behavioral analysis: Identify the specific behaviors required to perform a task
Subject matter analysis: Break down the subject matter into specific topics, concepts, and principles
Information processing analysis: Specify the cognitive processes involved in the task
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Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

10. Three Ways of Analyzing a Task
Behavioral Analysis
Subject Matter Analysis
Information Processing
Analysis
Turning on ignition
Steering
Shifting gears
Braking
Driving a standard
transmission
Reading music
Treble & bass clefs
Measures
Whole, half, & quarter notes
Solving a word problem
Defining the problem
Identifying appro- priate operations
Applying operations
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Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

11. Approaches to Instruction
Expository Instruction
An approach in which information is presented in more or less the same form in which students are expected to learn it
Hands-On Practice Activities
An approach where students are actually doing something rather than just hearing or reading about it
Interactive and Collaborative Approaches
An approach where the classroom is based on social interaction between students
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Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

12. Expository Instruction
Basic principles that improve the effectiveness of expository instruction:
An advance organizer: Introduction to a lesson that provides an overall organizational theme for the lesson
Connections to prior knowledge
An organized presentation
The use of various signals used to draw students’ attention to important parts
The use of visual aids
Appropriate pacing of the lesson
The use of summaries that help students review and organize material and identify main ideas
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Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

13. Methods & Formats of Expository Instruction
Lectures and Textbooks
Students must be cognitively active (paying attention, using elaboration, etc.).
Mastery Learning
Students must learn one topic thoroughly before moving to the next topic.
Direct Instruction
Teachers use a variety of techniques (questioning, guided and independent practice, explanations) to promote learning of basic skills.
Computer-based instruction
Instruction is provided via computer technology.
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Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

14. Methods & Formats of Hands-On & Practice Activities
Discovery Learning
Students develop an understanding of a topic through firsthand interaction with the environment.
Students are required to construct knowledge themselves rather than just “receive” it.
In-class Activities
Activities should clearly define task and purpose, capture students’ attention and interest, and accommodate diversity.
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Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

15. Methods & Formats of Hands-On & Practice Activities
Computer Simulations and Applications
Promote higher-level thinking within the context of gamelike or authentic tasks
E.g., dissecting a frog via a computer program (simulation) or using word processing programs for an assignment (application)
Homework
Assignments should be used primarily for diagnostic purposes.
Assignments should provide the information and structure students need to complete it without assistance from others.
Teachers should give a mixture of required and voluntary assignments.
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Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

16. Methods & Formats of Hands-On & Practice Activities
Authentic Activities
Classroom activities similar to those students are apt to encounter in the outside world
Examples include:
Constructing maps of the local community
Writing a letter to the editor of the local newspaper
Identifying various food chains in the local forest
Comparing different newspaper accounts of a current event to identify possible biases in reporting
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Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

17. Interactive & Collaborative Approaches
Includes teacher questions, class discussions, reciprocal teaching, cooperative learning, and peer tutoring
Teacher questions
Provide information about students’ prior knowledge and possible misconceptions
Focus students’ attention
Assess how much learning is actually occurring
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Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

18. Teacher Questions Teacher questions can come in two forms:
Lower-level questions require students to express what they’ve learned in essentially the same way they learned it.
Higher-level questions require students to engage in higher- level thinking and encourage more elaboration and knowledge construction.
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Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

19. Interactive & Collaborative Approaches
Class Discussions
Guidelines for promoting effective classroom discussions:
Focus on topics that lend themselves to multiple perspectives, explanations, or approaches
Make sure students have enough prior knowledge about a topic to discuss it intelligently
Create a classroom atmosphere conducive to open debate and constructive evaluation of ideas
Use small-group discussions to encourage all students to participate
Provide a structure to guide the discussion
Give students guidance about how to behave
Provide closure at the end of the discussion
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Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

20. Interactive & Collaborative Approaches
Reciprocal Teaching
An approach to teaching reading and listening comprehension in which students take turns asking teacher-like questions of classmates
Models effective reading and learning strategies
Supported by empirical research
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Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

21. Interactive & Collaborative Approaches
Cooperative Learning
This approach to instruction has students work with a small group of peers to achieve a common goal and help one another learn.
When designed and used correctly, cooperative learning activities are very effective.
Students at lower ability levels show higher academic achievement, as do females and other minority students.
Students often show higher self-efficacy, express more intrinsic motivation to learn material, and exhibit more self-regulation.
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Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

22. Making Cooperative Learning Effective
Form groups of students who are likely to work together productively
Provide clear goals toward which groups should work
Assign each group member a specific task or role within the group
Make individual students accountable for their achievement
Serve as a resource and monitor group interactions
Provide critical information and insights only when a group is unlikely or unable to provide such information and insights for itself.
Make students individually accountable for their achievement, but also reinforce group success
Ask students to evaluate their effectiveness in working as a group
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Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

23. Interactive & Collaborative Approaches
Peer Tutoring
An approach to instruction in which students who have mastered a topic teach those who have not
May lead to greater academic gains than either mastery learning or traditional whole-class instruction
Benefits both the tutor and the student
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Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

24. Promoting Effective Peer Tutoring
Make sure tutors have mastered the material they are teaching and use sound instructional techniques
Provide a structure for students’ interactions
Be careful that your use of higher-achieving students to tutor lower- achieving students is not excessive or exploitative
Use peer tutoring to help students with special education needs
Make sure that all students have experiences tutoring their classmates
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Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

25. Taking Student Diversity into Account
The instructional strategy (or strategies) you select will often depend on students’ ages, developmental level, and prior knowledge and skills.
Some strategies adapt themselves well to a variety of student abilities and needs.
Copyright © by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition