1. Groups and Formal Organizations
Chapter 6

2. Primary Groups and Secondary Groups
Group: at least two people who have one or more goals in common and share common ways of thinking and behaving
they are in regular contact with one another
they share ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving
they take one another’s behavior into account
they have one or more interests or goals in common
Groups and Formal Organizations
Groups, Categories, and Aggregates
Groups are classified by how they develop and function.
Groups range from small and informal to large and very formal.
They tend to draw lines around themselves creating insiders and outsiders.
Some groups have tighter, more definite boundaries than others
Example: African Americans/whites in South in early 1960’s
Since Civil Rights movement those boundaries are much looser

3. Neither Social Categories nor Social Aggregates are considered to be groups
Social Category: people who share a social characteristic
women
men
teenagers
elderly
citizens of a town
Social Aggregate: people who happen to be in the same place
at the same time
people waiting in line for movie tickets
people waiting for a bus
people attending a concert
witnesses of an accident
Social Categories and Social Aggregates
Social categories and social aggregates are not groups
They don’t share a purpose…don’t share common ways of thinking and behaving
Some of their members may form groups
Witnesses to an accident (aggregate) may come together to help a victim
Citizens of a town (social category) may band together to protest law

4. Primary Groups
Primary Group: people who are emotionally close, know one another
well, and seek one another’s company
family
close friends
Primary Groups
Charles Horton Cooley (symbolic interactionism) was the first to use the term
Members have a “we” feeling, enjoy being together
They are the most important setting for socialization
Family and childhood playgroups are the first primary groups a child experiences
We continue to develop them throughout life..friends, golfing buddies, etc.
Primary Relationships: interactions that are intimate, personal, caring,
and fulfilling

5. How Do Primary Groups Develop?
What conditions favor their formation?
small size
face-to-face contact
continuous contact
proper social environment
How do Primary Groups develop?
Small size
It’s hard for members of large groups to develop close emotional ties.
Much easier to know people well in small groups
If you’re an athlete you will more likely to develop primary relationships than the gym full of people who cheer you on
Face to face contact
Can read expressions, tone of voice. Much more likely to develop close ties.
Continuous contact
Close primary relationships rarely develop in a short period of time
Love at first sight? Not likely, more like attraction at first sight.
Most of us need repeated social contact to develop primary relationships
Proper social environment
Just seeing somebody every day in a close setting isn’t enough
You see the lunch lady every day, but you don’t become close friends
Lunch line (social setting) isn’t right place, and your statuses are different

6. What are the functions of primary groups?
They provide three important functions in society
emotional support
socialization
encourage conformity
What are the functions of primary groups?
Emotional support
German troops at end of WWII (outnumbered, undersupplied, outfought)
Strong emotional support ties kept them fighting
Socialization
Primary groups promote socialization, from family, to school, to college, to work, etc.
Encourage conformity
Provide pressure to conform
William Whyte study Italian slum gang
Bowling scores corresponded with status in the gang…if lower status members scored high, they were met with comments to keep them in conformity

7. Secondary Groups
Secondary Group: people who share only part of their lives while
focusing on a goal or task
Secondary Groups
Impersonal, goal oriented
They exist to accomplish a specific purpose
Work groups
Clubs in school
Relay for Life, etc.
Characterized by secondary relationships
Might be friends with one another, but purpose of the group is to accomplish a task, not enrich friendships
If members of Relay for Life are more interested in the emotional relationships within the group than helping the cause, their performance could suffer
Secondary Relationships: impersonal relationships involving
limited parts of relationships

8. Other Groups and Networks…
Reference Groups
Other Groups and Networks
Reference groups: we use certain groups to evaluate ourselves, to acquire attitudes, values, beliefs, norms
RG’s could be family, teachers, classmates, government leaders, bands, professional sports teams, etc.
A lot of times groups we aspire to
Pre-teens may dress like teens (like anticipatory socialization)
Dead heads? Follow beliefs, values and norms of the Dead.
RG’s don’t have to be positive
Violent gang behavior (either emulate or use as a blueprint for behavior to avoid)
Reference Group: group used for self-evaluation and the formation of
attitudes, values, beliefs, and norms

9. In-Groups and Out-Groups
Like two sides of a coin…you can’t have one without the other
In-Group: exclusive group demanding intense loyalty (cliques)
Out-Group: group targeted by in-group for opposition, antagonism, or competition
jocks, cheerleaders, etc. nerds are in-groups for some, out-groups for others
Freaks and Geeks
In-Groups and Out-Groups
Two sides of the same coin (you cant have one without the other)
In-group: close group of people to whom you are very loyal
Out group: a group toward which in-group members feel opposition, antagonism, or competition
The in-group competes with and is opposed by the out-group (think of cliques)
Jocks, cheerleaders, nerds, preppies, geeks are in-groups for some people and out-groups for others
Strong feeling of “us” verses “them”
Set up boundaries: clothing, slang, “code words,” meeting places, handshakes.
To outsiders, group boundaries set up an entrance barrier

10. How are Group Boundaries Maintained?

11. Social Networks
Social Networks
As individuals and as members of primary and secondary groups we interact with many people
All of a person’s interactions make up his or her social network
Family members, classmates, close friends, store clerks, etc.
Social networks tie us to hundreds of people in our community, throughout our country, even around the world
Internet is expanding social networks
Are Social Networks groups? No.
Although a person’s social network includes groups, its not a group itself
It lacks the boundaries of a group and doesn’t involve close or continuous interaction among all of its members
Relationships are too temporary for a sense of belonging to develop
Functions of social networks:
Provide a sense of belonging
Furnish support in form of help and support
Getting to know people who can help you in your career is very important
Social Network: a web of social relationships that join a person to
other people and groups
Small World

12. Five Types of Social Interaction
Cooperation: individuals and groups combine their efforts to reach a goal
Five Types of Social Interaction
Five types of social interaction are basic to group life: cooperation, conflict, social exchange, coercion and conformity
We take on different roles and have different norms and behaviors in different settings
You behave differently as a member of a basketball team than you do as a member of your family at home
1. Cooperation: individuals or groups combine their efforts to reach a goal
Usually happens when reaching a goal demands the best use of limited resources (sharing)
Emergencies, floods, famine, tornadoes, etc.
Kids agree on rules of a game, couples agree to share household chores
Without some degree of cooperation, social life could not exist
2. Conflict: groups or individuals that work against one another for a larger share of the reward are in conflict
Defeating the opponent is essential and may be more satisfying than reaching the goal
Benefits of conflict?
Promotion of cooperation and unity within opposing groups (neighborhood bully can unite even the most argumentative of brothers)
Attention it draws to social inequities (Civil Rights Movement, etc.)
Barn Raising

13. Conflict : interaction aimed at defeating an opponent
argument

14. 3. Social Exchange Sesame Street
Social Exchange: a voluntary action performed in the expectation of getting
a reward in return
Social Exchange
3. Social Exchange: 3rd type of social interaction. Voluntary action performed in the expectation of getting a reward in return
Help a friend paint a room expecting he will help you tile your bathroom
When you do someone else, he or she becomes obligated to return the favor…reciprocity, the idea that you should do for others as they have done for you
Difference between cooperation and social exchange?
Cooperation: “how can we reach our goal?”
Social exchange: “what’s in it for me?”
Sesame Street

15. 4. Coercion
Coercion
4. Coercion: 4th type of social interaction. Individuals or groups are forced to give in to the will of other individuals or groups.
The opposite of social exchange. While social exchange involves voluntary conformity for mutual benefit, coercion is a one-way street
The central element in coercion is domination
May be through physical force: imprisonment, torture, death
May be more subtle: social pressure, ridicule, rejection, withdrawal of affection, denial of recognition
Coercion: individuals or groups are forced to behave in a particular way
Police show of force

16. 5. Conformity Conformity: behavior that matches group expectations
5. Conformity: 5th type of social interaction. Conformity is behavior that matches group expectations.
When we conform, we adapt our behavior to fit the behavior of those around us.
Social life (with its uniformity, predictability, orderliness) couldn’t exist without this type of social interaction.
Without conformity there would be no families, schools, churches, governments…there would be no culture or social structure
Conformity: behavior that matches group expectations
Candid Camera

17. Asch’s Experiment video Asch’s Experiments
All but one person in a group of college students was asked to choose a line that obviously did not match
Under group pressure they went with the group opinion over 1/3 of the time
Individually…less than 1% inaccurate

18. Curiosity: How Evil Are You?
Medical Ethics Activity

19. What is Groupthink?
What is Groupthink?
Self-deceptive thinking based on conformity to group beliefs…created by group pressure to conform
Kennedy, Bay of Pigs. Several advisors felt it would fail, but failed to speak up because of group pressure
Research indicates groupthink can be avoided if leaders and group members make a conscious effort to make sure all members participate actively in discussions
Groupthink: self-deceptive thinking that is based on conformity to group beliefs, and created by group pressure to conform

20. Formal Organizations high schools colleges corporations hospitals
government agencies
Formal Organizations
A formal organization is created to achieve some goal. Most are bureaucratic.
They are deliberately created to achieve one or more long-term goals.
Pre-1920 Americans spent most of life in primary groups (family, neighborhoods, churches)
Post-1920, industrialization and urbanization advanced and we became more and more involved in secondary groups
Born in hospitals, educated in large schools, employed by huge corporations, regulated by government agencies, cared for in nursing homes, buried by funeral industry…cradle to grave within formal organizations
Formal Organization: a group deliberately created to achieve one or more
long-term goals

21. Bureaucracy
Bureaucracy
Most formal organizations today are also bureaucracies.
Bureaucracies are usually thought of in a negative way (inefficient, impersonal, etc.) but they have been proven to be effective in industrialized societies
Bureaucracy: a formal organization based on rationality and efficiency

22. Major Characteristics of Bureaucracies
A division of labor based on the principle of specialization
Power is derived from a legitimate source
A hierarchy of authority (pyramid shaped)
A system of rules and procedures
Written records of work and activities
Promotion on the basis of merit and qualifications
Major Characteristics of Bureaucracies
Division of labor based on principle of specialization
Each person responsible for certain functions or tasks
This specialization allows an individual to become an expert in a limited area
A hierarchy of authority
The greatest amount of authority is concentrated in a few positions at the top
Decreasing amounts of authority in a larger number of lower positions
A system of rules and procedures
Rules and procedures direct how work is to be done and provide a framework for decision making
They provide stability because they give guidelines to follow in most situations
Written records of work and activity
Written records of work and activity are made and kept in files
This organizational “memory” ensures smooth functioning, stability, and continuity
Promotion on the basis of merit and qualifications
Jobs are filled on the basis of professional qualifications
Promotion on basis of merit, not favoritism
Norm in a bureaucracy is equal treatment for all

23. Public School District Organization Chart

24. Bureaucracies; Good or Bad?
Advantages to industrial societies:
speed
efficiency
predictability
Rationalization: mind set emphasizing knowledge, reason
and planning
Disadvantages?
rules
procedures
impersonal treatment
Bureaucracies; good or bad?
Advantages
Efficiency in meeting needs of industrialized societies
Industrial economies demand steadiness, precision, continuity, speed, efficiency, minimum cost.
Disadvantages?
Rules, procedures, impersonal treatment…do they undervalue people?
Creativity undervalued?

25. Informal Structure Within Bureaucracies
Personal relationships guided by
common interests, shared values.
Relationships guided by norms that
Are not part of the formal organization
Informal structure within organizations
Bureaucracies are designed to act as secondary groups
But, primary groups emerge as part of the informal organization (groups within a formal organization)
These groups are guided by norms and beliefs that are not part of the formal organization
Based on common interests and personal relationships and formed spontaneously
They exist to meet the needs ignored by the formal organization
Friendship, personal affection, support, humor, protection
Informal Organization: groups that form within a formal organization

26. Iron Law of Oligarchy
Iron law of oligarchy
Theory of German sociologist Robert Michels
He observed even in organizations intended to be democratic, a few leaders eventually gain control, and other members become powerless
Increased concentration of power happens because those in power want to stay in power
Power increasingly becomes concentrated in the hands of a few members in
any organization.