1. Chapter 13 Personality

2. Personality Overview Personality is an elusive concept.
Some psychologists have developed “grand theories” of personality.
Others have tried to identify personality types and describe why an individual classified as a certain “personality type” behaves in certain ways.
This chapter, we will examine the ways of understanding personality and also discuss the ways of and problems in measuring this concept.

3. Personality Theories: What’s behind the mask?
Personality -- from the Latin word persona or “mask” that Greek actors used to wear to indicate if they were comic or tragic.
What is Personality?
Your characteristic pattern of thinking/ feeling/ acting, esp. in social contexts.
Implies some level of consistency across time and contexts
This chapter
Psychodynamic Approach
Humanistic Approach
Miscellaneous Facts & Assessment

4. Two major approaches: psychodynamic & humanist
FIGURE 13.1 Philosophers Thomas Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau held opposing views of human nature. Psychologists Sigmund Freud and Carl Rogers also held conflicting views. Freud, like Hobbes, stressed the more negative aspects of human nature; Rogers, like Rousseau, the more positive aspects.

5. Psychodynamic theories
Personality as the interplay of conflicting forces within the individual, including some forces that the individual may not consciously acknowledge.

6. Sigmund Frued First psychodynamic personality theory Background
Born 1856 Austro-Hungarian Empire
Went into training as a medical doctor
Theory based largely on sessions with his patients
Nervous disorders sometimes didn’t make neurological
Sense and talking often revealed emotional problems and resolved symptoms
Discussed cases with colleague Josef Breuer -- who used hypnosis as a way to help cure patients with various neuroses (e.g., Anna O)

7. Sigmund Frued
announced a new technique called free association.
Patients express any random thoughts that enter their minds.
Unconscious thoughts and memories brought to the conscious, allowing the patient to understand them. This will hopefully free the patient from the problem.
Free association led to a therapy known as psychoanalysis.
Focused biologically based instinctual drives, especially sex and aggression.
Very young children also have these drives and they influence fantasies, problem solving and social interactions

8. Personality Freud and the psychodynamic approach
Although Freud’s theory had an enormous impact on society during the 20th century, his influence within psychology is waning.
His theory is very difficult to test empirically.
Although many psychologists find nothing useful in the Freudian paradigm, its tenets are still utilized by some mental health practitioners.

9. Freud’s view of the mind
conscious-- what you’re aware of, can verbalize and think about in a logical fashion.
preconscious -- ordinary memory. Not conscious, but can be easily brought into conscious.
unconscious -- not directly accessible. A dump box for urges, feelings and ideas that are tied to anxiety, conflict and pain. These feelings and thoughts still exert influence on our actions and our conscious awareness.

10. Psychodynamic approach: Where does personality come from?
shaped by internal conflicting forces.
individual may be unaware of these.
conscious vs. the unconscious
the unconscious =stuff in our minds that we’re not aware of.
includes some memories, thoughts, & emotions that are illogical or socially unacceptable.
often at odds with our conscious minds
affects our behavior

11. Three Portions of Personality in Psychosexual Theory
Id--(unconscious)-- sexual and aggressive impulses -- represents biological needs and desires, and requires immediate gratification
Superego--(mainly unconscious) moral ethical principles -- represents values of society and conscience; a primitive and unconscious sense of morality; it is the internalization of the world view and norms a child absorbs from parents and peers. A primitive knowledge of right and wrong.
Ego (mainly conscious) reality oriented functions develops in early infancy and is the conscious, rational part of personality It is the mediator between the id and the superego ID
SUPEREGO
EGO
conscious
unconscious

12. The psychodynamic approach: How does a child’s personality develop?
Stages of Psychosexual Development
According to Freud people have a libido (psychosexual energy) = all the sensations of excitement that arise from body stimulation.
He believed that how we manage this aspect of our development influences nearly all aspects of our personality
as we grow up, we go through 5 psychosexual stages
how we deal with the stages ultimately determines personality (“fixation”)

13. Personality Freud’s psychosexual stages of development
The Oral Stage (The first year of life)
The infant derives intense psychosexual pleasure from stimulation of the mouth, particularly from breastfeeding but from oral contact with other objects as well.
Oral fixation might involve problems with eating, drinking, substance use, and issues of dependence on/independence from others.

14. Freud’s psychosexual stages of development
The Anal Stage (About 1 to 3 years old)
The child derives intense psychosexual pleasure from stimulation of the anal sphincter, the muscle that controls bowel movements. This is partly related to toilet training, which usually occurs at this stage.
Anal fixation might involve problems with:.
Anal retentive traits--being obsessively clean, overly tidy, very orderly, controlled, punctual, stingy and possessive. due to strict attitudes towards toilet training.
Anal expulsive traits-- poorly organized and perhaps aggressive. Due to lax attitudes towards toilet training.

15. Freud’s psychosexual stages of development
The Phallic Stage (About 3 to 6 years of age)
The child derives intense psychosexual pleasure from stimulation of the genitals, and becomes attracted to the opposite-sex parent.
Phallic fixation might involve fear of being castrated (in boys) or “penis envy” in girls.

16. Freud’s psychosexual stages of development
The Latent Period (About 6 years to adolescence)
The child in this period suppresses his or her psychosexual interest. Children in this age group tend to play mostly with same sex peers.
There is some evidence that the “latent period” is a cultural artifact. Children in some non-industrialized societies do not experience a period of “latency.”

17. Freud’s psychosexual stages of development
The Genital Stage (Adolescence and beyond)
The individual in this period has a strong sexual interest in other people. If he or she has completed the other stages successfully, primary psychosexual satisfaction will be gained from sexual intercourse.
The individual who is fixated in an early period of development has little libido left for this stage.

18. Table 13.1 Freud’s stages of psychosexual development.

19. Name that fixation!
Your friend Oscar can’t seem to go more than 30 minutes without lighting up a cigarette. Freud would say that he…
Is fixated in the oral stage.

20. Name that fixation
Your friend Annie can’t seem to hang on to a cent. She spends her money wildly. Her roommates are always threatening to call the health department because she never cleans up after herself and her room always looks like a “pigsty.” Freud would say that she…
Is fixated in the anal stage.

21. Evaluation of Freud’s stages
Difficult to test empirically.
Research inconclusive.
Personality attributes for people who are “fixated” at certain stages do seem to correlate, there is no evidence that they result from the difficulties that Freud hypothesized occur at those ages (i.e. “penis envy” in the Phallic Stage).

22. The psychodynamic approach:
What else did Freud say?
excessive anxiety may be due to libido problems:
lack of sexual gratification
excessive masturbation
traumatic childhood sexual experiences
To deal with anxiety: defense mechanisms
tricks used by ego to push unpleasant things  unconscious; they reduce anxiety & are usually healthy

23. The psychodynamic approach: Common defense mechanisms
1. Rationalization (making excuses): Reframing unpleasant events as actually good, justifiable or rational
2. Repression (motivated forgetting): Forgetting painful or upsetting thoughts/feelings/events
3. Regression: Returning to a more juvenile way of thinking or acting
4. Reaction formation: Presenting your ideas/feelings as the opposite of what they really are
5. Projection: Attributing your own undesirable characteristics/motives to someone else
6. Denial: Refusing to acknowledge an unpleasant event/thought
7. Displacement (scapegoating): Diverting your thoughts/impulses from their actual target to a less threatening target
8. Sublimation: Transforming sexual or aggressive energies into more acceptable, pro-social behaviors

24. Name that defense mechanism!
You promised yourself that you would exercise regularly, but you haven’t exercised in about 3 months. You think: “Well, I can justify this because I have been very busy … and if I had exercised I probably would have gotten injured and done poorly in my classes.”
Rationalization

25. Name that defense mechanism!
Your boss yells at you. You come home and yell at your spouse. Your spouse yells at your child. Your child goes out to the yard and yells at the dog.
Displacement

26. The psychodynamic approach & psychoanalysis
Expanded to psychoanalysis: therapeutic process:
bringing parts of the unconscious into consciousness  catharisis (therapeutic release of pent-up emotions)

27. The psychodynamic approach: Freud’s legacy
Freud generally did not use the “scientific method”
And many of his findings discredited. However …
There is an unconscious mind.
People do often have conflicting motives.
Childhood experiences and sexual development do affect later outcomes
Relationships with people in our family do influence relationships we have with others.

28. Neo-Freudians
Psychologists and others who adopted some parts of Freud’s theory and modified others.
Karen Horney believed Freud exaggerated the role of sexuality, and misunderstood the motivations of women and the dynamics of family relationships.

29. Neo-Freudians Carl Jung
Greater emphasis on continuity of human experience and need for spiritual meaning.
Fascinated by similar images and themes (e.g., in art, stories) and themes across cultures
In addition to personal conscious and unconscious mind Jung proposed idea of “collective unconscious.”
Present at birth, reflects cumulative experiences of all of our ancestors.
Contains archetypes -- figures and themes that emerge repeatedly in human history and across world cultures (e.g., Anima/Animus)

30. Neo-Freudians Alfred Adler “individual psychology.”
“individual” -- understanding the whole person, not partitioned as in Freudian framework.
striving for superiority -- natural desire to seek personal excellence and fulfillment
We create a style of life, which is our plan for achieving a sense of superiority
Many paths to superiority
Competition in business, sports, etc.
Self sacrificing
Committing crimes for attention
Complaining to get control
Making excuses for lack of achievement (“if only ….”)
People who do not succeed may suffer from an inferiority complex, an exaggerated feeling of inadequacy, throughout

31. Neo-Fruedians
Adler
Social Interest -- sense of belonging and identification with others
healthy striving for superiority involved concern for the needs and welfare of others.
Mental Health:
Social interest
Effective striving for superiority
Psychopathology:
Lack of social interest
Setting inadequate goals,
Faulty style of life

32. Neo-Fruedians Adler’s Legacy
Mental health as a positive state (not just the absence of neurosis)
Inferiority complex
Approaches to therapy based on how people’s assumptions influence behavior
Emphasis on social interest

33. Summary of Neo-Fruedians
Adopted some parts of Freud’s thinking and modified other parts.
Note: Still did not generally use “the scientific method”

34. The Learning Approach How do you develop a personality? You learn it!
Questions concept of personality.
People frequently behave differently depending on social context.
E.g., We may act differently with our parents, coworkers, friends.
Learning approach relates specific behaviors to specific experiences. Often the experiences from which we learn are those of other people in our environment.
Helps explain variations in behavior across people and situations

35. The Learning Approach How do people learn? Social Learning Theories
Imitating models
We are most likely to imitate models with perceived similarity
Principle of vicarious reinforcement
Example -- gender roles psychological aspect of being male or female (as opposed to your biological sex.)
Cross-cultural research suggests that components of the male and female gender roles are learned.
Boys can be observed to imitate men, and girls to imitate women.

36. The humanistic approach
people are essentially good (in contrast to neutral stance of behaviorism or negative view of psychoanalytic theories)
people strive toward self-actualization
state of achieving one’s full potential.
personality depends on what people believe
behavior is not determined by “simple” causes
look at “peak experiences”
two Major People: Carl Rogers & Abraham Maslow

37. Humanistic psychology: Carl Rogers
People strive toward self-actualization: a state of achieving one’s full potential.
Children develop a self-concept, an image of the person that they really are and an ideal self, an image that represents the person they would like to be.
Psychological distress is generated from mismatch between self-concept and the ideal self.

38. Humanistic psychology: Carl Rogers
human welfare best served in atmosphere of unconditional positive regard.
Unconditional positive regard involves the acceptance of the person as he or she is.
Most people receive conditional positive regard in their important relationships.
This means that the person is only held in esteem when they fulfill certain requirements set for them by the other person or society.

39. Humanistic psychology

40. Humanistic psychology
Abraham Maslow
proposed that people have a hierarchy of motivating needs and that the highest need of these is the need to become self-actualized.
Maslow developed a list of characteristics of the self-actualized person based on people who, in his opinion, had achieved the state.

41. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Self Actualization--growth- oriented motive that sits atop a pyramid of needs
As more basic needs are met people direct themselves towards higher level needs (e.g., love and esteem).
If those needs are met people direct their needs towards self- actualization--
Self Actualization -- a motive that urges the person to make optimal use of his or her full potential, to become a more effective, creative participant in daily life

42. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
SELF-ACTUALIZED PEOPLE
(anecdotal evidence):
perceive reality accurately
enjoy life
are independent, spontaneous, creative
treat others with unconditional positive regard
Critics correctly point out that this is not a scientific list, and merely represents characteristics that Maslow admired in people.

43. Personality
Personality theory in many ways seeks to describe human nature. It raises some fascinating questions that do not seem easily answerable.
Many researchers in the area of personality are working on these questions in small steps in hopes of eventually synthesizing an accurate larger picture of who we as humans really are.

44. The Trait Approach Personality Traits
The main idea of the trait approach to personality is that there exists in people consistent personality characteristics that can be identified, measured and studied.

45. Traits vs. States Personality traits and states
A trait is a consistent, long-lasting tendency in behavior,
E.g., sociability, shyness or assertiveness.
A state is a temporary activation of particular behavior.
E.g., getting angry when someone cuts you off on the freeway

46. Concept Check:
You become very, very nervous whenever you have a psychology test scheduled. Are you experiencing “trait anxiety” or “state anxiety?”
State anxiety

47. Types of Traits: Locus of Control
Table 13.2 Sample items from the Internal–External scale.

48. Types of Traits: Locus of Control
The search for broad personality traits
Locus of control
Individual’s perception of the amount of control that he or she has over the course of life events.
People who believe that their lives are controlled by external forces are said to have an external locus of control.
People who believe that they are in charge of their lives have an internal locus of control.
Implications for how people go about their lives.

49. Personality The search for broad personality traits
The Big Five personality traits
Cattell identified 35 different personality traits
Psychologists used factor analysis to determine which traits overlapped and which did not. Based on this approach, researchers identified what are termed the “Big Five” personality traits:
These are: neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to new experience.

50. The Big Five personality traits
Neuroticism-- tendency to experience unpleasant emotions very easily.
Extraversion-- tendency to seek stimulation and enjoy the company of other people.
Agreeableness--tendency to be compassionate rather than antagonistic towards others.
Conscientiousness--tendency to show self-discipline, to be reliable, and to strive for competence and achievement.
Openness to Experience -- tendency to enjoy new experiences and new ideas.

51. Personality The search for broad personality traits
Criticisms of the Big Five description:
It was based on a study of the English language, not on observations of human behavior.
There are too few traits included.
There are too many traits included.
It has limited applicability cross-culturally.

52. Personality characteristics
Why do different people have different personalities?
Some miscellaneous factors:
Heredity: Twin & family studies strongly suggest a genetic component to things like extroversion.
Older Age  more consistency in personality
Historical Era  anxiety is increasing

53. Personality
Psychologists are still grappling with the enigma of human personality. People are not just different from each other; the same people are different depending on the situation.
We are complex creatures and this area of research is very challenging.