1. Harry Truman (D)

2. Harry Truman (D)
FOREIGN POLICY

3. Harry Truman (D)
1945 – WWII ends with Truman’s decision to drop A-bomb on Japan 1945 – The United Nations is created
1. Yalta - foundation for UN laid.
2. San Francisco Conference - April, 1946
a. UN Charter created General Assembly composed of all member nations; policy- making body; no real enforcement power.
b. Security Council - US, USSR, China, Britain, & France are permanent members plus six additional members for 2-year terms.
* Any single veto would overrule a proposal.
Nuremberg Trials
1. Potsdam: had decided to punish war crimes.
top Nazis on trial at Nuremberg, Germany
Nazis hanged & seven sentenced to long jail terms.

4. Harry Truman (D)
1946 – W. Churchill claimed an Iron Curtain has descended upon Europe
"Beware ... time may be short From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the Continent."
- Winston Churchill, Fulton, Missouri,

5. Harry Truman (D) George Kennan
1947 – How will the U.S. containing communism in Europe
- US ambassador in Moscow, George Kennan responded with the Long Telegram, He proposed a long term control of Soviet expansion.
This led to Truman’s policy of containment – keeping communism within its present territory through diplomatic, economic, and military actions
1947--*Truman Doctrine aid is aimed at saving Greece & Turkey. Truman asked Congress for $400 million to fight Soviet aggression in Greece and Turkey.
Became known as the Truman Doctrine – “It must be the policy of the US to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures.”
George Kennan

6. Harry Truman (D)
1947 – Postwar Western Europe faced economic ruin and starving people.
--June 1947, Secretary of State George C. Marshall proposed the European Recovery Program called the Marshall Plan.
-- Billion$ of US dollar$ would go to rebuild Europe and hopefully prevent chaos that might lead those countries to turn to communism.

7. Harry Truman (D) All of these actions were attempts to stop the
Organization of American States (OAS) – to prevent communism in Latin America.
US government reorganization/rearmament
Department of Defense.
a. Headed by new cabinet post -
Secretary of Defense; housed in new Pentagon Building.
b. National Security Council & Central Intelligence Agency
Voice of America - US radio broadcasts beamed into areas behind the iron curtain.
Atomic Energy Commission
a. Established civilian control over nuclear development.
b. Gave the president sole authority over the use of atomic weapons in warfare.
All of these actions were attempts to stop the
spread of communism and CONTAIN it to
areas where it already existed.

8. Harry Truman (D) Germany Divided 1948 – Partitioned Germany
Partitioning
Germany split into four zones w/ Berlin also being split into quadrants. Issue of Berlin nearly resulted in full-scale war in
Agreements made among the
“Big Three” leaders at Yalta led to the division of Germany into four zones, each controlled by an Allied power
Germany Divided

9. Harry Truman (D) 1. Soviets dominated E. German zone after war
1948 Partition of Germany
1. Soviets dominated E. German zone after war
a. Stripped resources as war reparations.
b. Did not want a revitalized Germany that
could again serve as threat to USSR.
2. US wanted revitalized Germany.
democratic W. Germany created;
E. Germany stayed under Soviet control.

10. Harry Truman (D)
1948 – U.S.S.R. cuts off supply route to W. Berlin and U.S. responds with an airlift
Soviets closed all traffic to West Berlin, hoping to force US to give up Berlin.
Truman then ordered the Berlin airlift.
For eleven months, cargo planes supplied Berliners with food, medicine, and coal.
Stalin finally lifted the blockade on May 12
Reconstruction of Japan
U.S., led by Gen. Douglas MacArthur, implemented democracy in Japan.
Japanese war criminals were tried between ; Tojo hanged
Constitution (1946) renounced militarism; formed a Western-styled democracy.
Japan would become an economic power!

11. Harry Truman (D)
1949 – U.S.S.R. detonates their first A-bomb
1949, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) formed, a mutual defense alliance, was created with twelve countries joining.
The members agreed to come to the aid of any member nation that was attacked.
The U.S. and its allies allowed West Germany to join NATO.
1955-Soviet leaders responded with their own military alliance in Eastern Europe known as the Warsaw Pact.

12. Harry Truman (D)
1949 – Civil War in China turns most populous country into a Communist Nation
In China, Communist forces and Nationalist forces had been battling since the late 1920s. They stopped their civil war during WW II to resist Japanese occupation.
With the end of WW II, civil war broke out again.
Nationalists were defeated after poor leadership caused US to stop sending aid.
Communists set up the People’s Republic of China.
China’s Nationalist leaders fled to Formosa (Taiwan) and set up a government there.
China and USSR signed an alliance treaty.
The U.S. kept “Red” China out of the UN while allowing Nationalists from Taiwan to retain their seats.

13. Harry Truman (D)
1950 – *Korean Conflict begins; as a result United Nations police action begins to defend S. Korea
At the end of World War II, American and Soviet forces entered Korea to disarm Japanese troops stationed there.
The Allies divided Korea at the 38th parallel:
* Soviet troops controlled the North and installed a Communist government.
* US troops controlled the South and installed a democratic government.

14. Harry Truman (D) 1950, North Korean troops invaded South Korea.
Truman asked the UN to act against the Communist invasion of South Korea.
American, UN, and South Korean troops pushed back advancing North Korean troops
The Communist Chinese government saw the UN troops as a threat and demanded that they stop advancing.
After being ignored, China began a massive attack with hundreds of thousands of Chinese troops heading across the border, driving UN forces back.

15. Harry Truman (D)
General MacArthur demanded approval to expand the war against China. (use nukes?)
Truman refused MacArthur’s demands.
MacArthur was fired after publicly criticizing the president.
Truman was committed to waging a limited war, a war fought to achieve a limited objective such as containing communism.
1951 UN forces had pushed Chinese and North Korean troops back across the 38th parallel.
War slugged on for two more bloody years with little progress on either side.

16. Harry Truman (D)
DOMESTIC POLICY

17. American Society in the Post-WWII era (1945-1950)
A. GI Bill of Rights ( GI Bill)
Money to veterans for college, homes,
& to start businesses
* Led to economic prosperity!
B. Baby Boom
s - population grew by over 28 million;
97% was in urban & suburban areas.
: 63.5 million babies were born.
C. Economic Boom: The Affluent Society
1. National income nearly doubled in 1950s;
almost doubled again in 1960s.
a. Americans had about 40% of worlds wealth for
only 6% of worlds population.
b. By mid-1950s, 60% owned homes compared w/ 40% in 1920s –
“The American Dream”
c. Majority of new jobs went to women in offices & shops
* Sparked feminist revolt in 1960s.

18. COLD WAR ! d. Economy largely fueled by growth of
the defense industry.
* Accounted for over 50% of the
national budget by 1960.
COLD WAR !
2. Consumerism
- mushroomed as Americans had more disposable income.

19. a. Over 12 million by early 1960s. b. Suburbs
3. Middle Class
a. Over 12 million by early 1960s.
b. Suburbs
* More cars, “white flight” from cities
due to black migration into N & Mid-
western region.
c. Cult of domesticity re-emerges
* Concept of a woman’s place being in
the home – common in magazines, TV
-- Father Knows Best;
Leave it to Beaver, etc.
* Dr. Benjamin Spock: Baby and Child Care
* Message: Women’s primary job was to stay home &
nurture their children.
d. Sunbelt vs. Frostbelt (aka Rustbelt)
1. South and Southwest
2. Air-conditioning spurred growth.
3. War/high-tech industries to the west coast.
4. Aerospace industry & military – TX & Fla.
POLITICAL POWER SHIFT!

20. a. Over 12 million by early 1960s. b. Suburbs
3. Middle Class
a. Over 12 million by early 1960s.
b. Suburbs
* More cars, “white flight” from cities
due to black migration into N & Mid-
western region.
c. Cult of domesticity re-emerges
* Concept of a woman’s place being in
the home – common in magazines, TV
-- Father Knows Best;
Leave it to Beaver, etc.
* Dr. Benjamin Spock: Baby and Child Care
* Message: Women’s primary job was to stay home &
nurture their children.
d. Sunbelt vs. Frostbelt (aka Rustbelt)
1. South and Southwest
2. Air-conditioning spurred growth.
3. War/high-tech industries to the west coast.
4. Aerospace industry & military – TX & Fla.
POLITICAL POWER SHIFT!

21. Harry Truman (D) 1947--Presidential Succession Act
Civil Rights: gains for African-Americans
Truman created President’s Committee on Civil Rights.
Jackie Robinson - first African-American in major league baseball (1947)
banned racial discrimination in federal jobs & ordered desegregation of the armed forces. (Exec Order 9981)
1947--Presidential Succession Act
1. In case of nuclear war.
2. Order:
Vice-President
Speaker of the House
President Pro-tem of Senate
Secretary of State
nd Amendment * Limited president to two terms; or a maximum of 10 years.

22. Harry Truman (D)
The Cold War heightened Americans’ fears of Communist infiltration and atomic attack
During the 1950s, rumors and accusations in the United States led to fears that Communists were attempting to take over the world.
The Red Scare began in September 1945, and escalated into a general fear of Communist subversion – an effort to secretly weaken a society and overthrow its government
Early 1947, Truman established the loyalty review program to screen all federal employees for their loyalty.
The program’s aim was to calm Americans’ fears.
Instead, it led to the fear that Communists were infiltrating the U.S. government.

23. Harry Truman (D)
1949, with the Soviets testing an atomic bomb and China falling to communism, Americans felt they were losing the Cold War.
1950 – (R) Sen. J. McCarthy claims communists have infested the government, starts 2nd Red Scare
He had won his Senate race after accusing his opponent of being a Communist.
Senator McCarthy became the chairman of the Senate subcommittee on investigations.
His investigation turned into a witch hunt as he searched for disloyalty based on poor evidence and fear.
He ruined reputations without real evidence.
This tactic became known as McCarthyism.

24. Harry Truman (D)
FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover went to the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) to urge them to hold public hearings on Communist subversion.
The FBI sent agents to investigate suspected groups and to wiretap thousands of Americans' telephones.
HUAC’s investigations took on a circus-like atmosphere as suspects were ordered into the House Committee and asked the question...
“Are you now, or have you ever been, a member of the Communist Party?”

25. Harry Truman (D)
The film and entertainment industry was a major target of HUAC. Some of Hollywood’s biggest names were accused of having Communist ties. These men actually served jail time for lying under oath. They were known as the “Hollywood Ten.”
Many others were blacklisted and never worked in the industry again.
A prominent lawyer and diplomat named Alger Hiss was investigated.
Hiss had served in FDR’s admin, attended Yalta, and helped with the organization of the UN.
Hiss denied the charges, but he was convicted of committing perjury, or lying under oath.

26. Harry Truman (D)
1951 – Rosenbergs are tried and sentenced for providing nuclear secrets to the Soviets
The search for spies intensified when the Soviet Union produced an atomic bomb.
A British scientist, admitted giving information to the Soviet Union.
This led to the arrest and conviction of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, who were Communists.
They were charged with heading a Soviet spy ring and were executed in 1953.

27. Harry Truman (D)
1954 Americans watched televised Army- McCarthy hearings and saw how McCarthy attacked witnesses. His popularity faded.
Finally, an army lawyer named Joseph Welch stood up to McCarthy.
“Until this moment, Senator, I think I never really gauged your cruelty or your recklessness. You have done enough … Have you no sense of decency?”
- Joseph Welch to Joe McCarthy
McCarthy, now disgraced, was censured by the Senate.
Within three years, at age 48, Joe McCarthy was dead.

28. Harry Truman (D)
Communism and the threat of the atomic bomb dominated life for Americans and their leaders in the 1950s.
Americans prepared for a surprise attack.
Experts realized that for every person killed instantly by a nuclear blast, four more would later die from fallout, the radiation left over after the blast.
Some families built fallout shelters in their backyards and stocked them with canned food.
“Duck-and-cover” drills were regularly held in American schools during the 1950s.

29. Dwight D. Eisenhower (R)

30. Dwight D. Eisenhower (R)
FOREIGN POLICY

31. Dwight D. Eisenhower (R)
IKE'S "NEW LOOK" POLICY: “Massive Retaliation”
Believed Cold War would be won through a strong military and a strong economy.
Conventional war would be too expensive; would hurt the economy.
Believed reliance on atomic weapons was necessary.
Eisenhower wanted to prevent war from happening in the first place.
A policy called massive retaliation was used to threaten use of nuclear weapons on any Communist state that tried to gain territory through force.
Result: A cut in military spending and an increase in America’s nuclear arsenal.
B-52 & ICBMs
“CONTAINMENT”

32. Dwight D. Eisenhower (R)
“Ike” Takes Command
1953 – Korean Conflict ends in a stalemate at the 38th parallel
Ike had promised to end Korean War.
After Ike threatened nuclear weapons “brinkmanship”, an armistice was signed.
Korea remained divided at the 38th parallel.
1953 – Stalin Dies

33. Dwight D. Eisenhower (R)
1954 – *S.E.A.T.O. (South East Asia Treaty Organization) Alliance forms to pr0tect S.E. Asia
1950s – Nationalist leaders try to get French out of Vietnam.
Ho Chi Mien – leader of Communists.
French were surrounded at Dienbienphu. Ike refused to intervene. French surrendered.
Geneva Conference sets 17th parallel division. North is communist; South, led by Diem is pro-Western.
Ike promises aid to South Vietnam.

34. Dwight D. Eisenhower (R)
1955 – Mutually Assured Destruction or MAD Plan introduced by John Foster Dulles
1955 – S.U. creates Warsaw Pact to offset NATO

35. Dwight D. Eisenhower (R)
Menaces in the Middle East
1953 – To get Iranian oil for Western countries, CIA engineered a coup that installed Mohammed Reza Pahlevi as Shah of Iran.
Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal, which was owned by French and Brits. 
The Suez Crisis ensued as French & Brits launched an assault on Egypt; but were forced to withdraw troops when US refused to release emergency supplies of oil to them.
Congress proclaimed the Eisenhower Doctrine, pledging U.S. military and economic aid to Middle Eastern nations threatened by communist aggression. 
Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, Iran, and Venezuela joined to form
the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC).

36. Dwight D. Eisenhower (R)
1957, the Soviets launched Sputnik, the first artificial satellite to orbit the earth.
Americans feared they were falling behind in missile technology.
1958-Congress created the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).
1958-It was feared that Soviet educational system was better than the United States'; the National Defense and Education Act (NDEA) authorized $887 million in loans to needy college students and in grants for the improvement of teaching math, sciences, and languages

37. Dwight D. Eisenhower (R)
1959 – Fidel Castro led a coup that overthrew US-supported government of Cuba.  Communist dictator takes power and seizes all US assets and priv. property
Latin Americans were angry that the U.S. seemed to neglect Latin America's economic needs in favor of Europe's.  Also despised constant American intervention – Ex: CIA directed a coup in 1954 that overthrew a leftist government in Guatemala.
U.S. cut off imports of Cuban sugar.
Cuba's left-wing dictatorship quickly had become a military satellite nation for the Soviet Union….90 miles from Florida! 
August 1960, Congress authorized $500 million to prevent communism from spreading in Latin America.

38. Dwight D. Eisenhower (R)
1956 – New Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev proposes idea of “peaceful coexistence” . Hungary rebellion is crushed by Soviet Union.
1960 – Francis Gary Powers is shot down in his U-2 spy plane over U.S.S.R.
Eisenhower and Soviet leader Khrushchev agreed to a summit in Paris in order to improve relations.
Khrushchev stopped the summit after Soviets shot down an American U-2 spy plane piloted by Francis Gary Powers.
This became known as the U-2 incident.

39. Dwight D. Eisenhower (R)
DOMESTIC POLICY

40. Dwight D. Eisenhower (R)
Seeds of the Civil Rights Revolution
Supreme Court Chief Justice Earl Warren began to confront important civil rights issues (liberal Court).
In places without segregation laws, such as in the North, there was de facto segregation --- segregation by custom and tradition.
The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) had supported court cases trying to overturn segregation since 1909.
African American attorney and chief counsel for the NAACP
Thurgood Marshall worked to end segregation in public schools
* Sweat vs Painter. Case involved a black man, Heman Sweatt, who was refused admission to the School of Law at the University of Texas, (UT) president,  Theophilus Painter, on the grounds that the Texas State Constitution prohibited integrated education. At the time, no law school in Texas would admit black students/ "Negro" students.

41. Dwight D. Eisenhower (R)
Seeds of the Civil Rights Revolution
several Supreme Court cases regarding segregation – including the case of Linda Brown – were combined into one ruling.
The girl had been denied admission to a neighborhood school in Topeka, Kansas, because she was African American.
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas:
“Segregation of public schools is inherently unequal and violates the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment.”
This ruling overturned Plessy v. Ferguson (“separate but equal”).

42. Dwight D. Eisenhower (R)
Jim Crow laws governed African- American life in the South.
WWII generated new militancy/ restlessness among many black Americans.
1955 – Rosa Parks refused to give up her bus seat to a white person in Montgomery, Alabama. Led to a black bus boycott led by MLK, Jr. Segregation of buses ended the next year

43. Dwight D. Eisenhower (R)
Crisis at Little Rock
1957 – Orval Faubus, Arkansas gov., mobilized National Guard to prevent nine black students from enrolling in Central High School.
Confronted with direct challenge to federal authority, Ike sent troops to escort the students to their classes.
1957- Congress passed first Civil Rights Act since Reconstruction. Protected civil rights & voting rights.

44. Dwight D. Eisenhower (R)
Interstate Highways
Eisenhower described his political beliefs as midway between conservative and liberal.
He pushed for passage of the Federal Highway Act, which provided $25 billion for a 10-year project to construct 40,000 miles of interstate highways.

45. Dwight D. Eisenhower (R)
Mechanization of farms and factories increased more white-collar jobs, such as sales and management.
In 1956, for the first time, white-collar workers outnumbered blue-collar workers – people who perform manual labor in industry.
Levittown, NY - one of the earliest suburbs; mass-produced.
Between 1947 and 1951, other Levittown-type suburbs were built all over the US.
To some, suburbs symbolized the American dream; others saw them as an example of American conformity.

46. Dwight D. Eisenhower (R)
WOMEN……
New white-collar jobs opened opportunities for women…..but wife and mother was the most typical role for women.
New dual role as workers and homemakers raised urgent questions about traditional definitions of gender differences.
1950s women were still expected to follow the homemaker path, even those who were college-educated.

47. Dwight D. Eisenhower (R)
The movie industry lost viewers.
Moviemakers tried to lure people away from TV sets. Ex: use of 3-D glasses and cinemascope.
Movie roles for women were stereotypical, often as wives or girlfriends.
Roles for black Americans were often stereotypical or one-dimensional

48. Dwight D. Eisenhower (R)
The New Consumer Culture in the Fifties
Credit cards, fast-food, and new forms of recreation….forerunners of an emerging lifestyle of leisure and affluence. 
In 1946, only 6 TV stations were broadcasting; by 1956, there were 146.
TV news became an important source of information.
Advertising and sporting events became more common.
Popular music was transformed during the 1950s.  Elvis Presley was "King" of the new style known as rock 'n roll.
Social problem in the U.S. during the 1950s - a rise in juvenile delinquency – antisocial or criminal behavior of youth
CONFORMITY was expected by mainstream society during the 1950s!

49. Dwight D. Eisenhower (R)
Technological Breakthroughs
Invention of transistor sparked technology revolution.
Scientists working for the U.S. Army developed one of the earliest computers.
Aerospace industries also grew in the 1950s, thanks to Eisenhower's Strategic Air Command (SAC) and to an expanding passenger airline business.
Medical breakthroughs: development of antibiotics; new drugs for arthritis, diabetes, cancer, and heart disease; and advances in surgical techniques.
Polio epidemics swept the nation in the 1940s and 1950s. Jonas Salk developed an injectable vaccine that prevented polio.