1. Developing the skills of speaking
Chris Morris

2. 1 What kind of language is involved in spoken discourse?
1 Look at these two samples of language.
Which one is spoken, which is written?
What are the main differences between them?
What kind of people do you think are represented in the spoken sample?

3. G: I watched that film last night + remember that - did you see it H: no I’m afraid I didn’t - haven’t got a television + what was - G: it’s eh + it was about eh + the assassination of + President Carter + I think it was H: mm G: aye it was him and you saw it it was a good film + I watched it all H: what happened in it G: well eh you just saw the ashassina + assassination and there was somebody taking the parts of what the man had done that got shot him eh + that shot him and they was following all the things and all that and then + eh this other man went and shot him because he liked the President + and then after that it just ended up that he got took to prison +
I can see by my watch, without taking my hand from the left grip of the cycle, that it is eight-thirty in the morning. The wind, even at sixty miles an hour, is warm and humid. In the wind are pungent odours from the marshes by the road. We are in an area of the Central Plains filled with thousands of duck hunting sloughs, heading north-west from Minneapolis toward the Dakotas. This highway is an old concrete two-laner that hasn’t had much traffic since a four-laner went in parallel to it several years ago. When we pass a marsh, the air suddenly becomes cooler. Then, when we are past, it suddenly warms up again.

4. SAMPLE A G: I watched that film last night + remember that - did you see it H: no I’m afraid I didn’t - haven’t got a television + what was - G: it’s eh + it was about eh + the assassination of + President Carter + I think it was H: mm G: aye it was him and you saw it it was a good film + I watched it all H: what happened in it G: well eh you just saw the ashassina + assassination and there was somebody taking the parts of what the man had done that got shot him eh + that shot him and they was following all the things and all that and then + eh this other man went and shot him because he liked the President + and then after that it just ended up that he got took to prison + D. Crystal and D. Davy (1975) Advanced Conversational English Harlow:Longman

5. SAMPLE B
I can see by my watch, without taking my hand from the left grip of the cycle, that it is eight-thirty in the morning. The wind, even at sixty miles an hour, is warm and humid. In the wind are pungent odours from the marshes by the road. We are in an area of the Central Plains filled with thousands of duck hunting sloughs, heading north-west from Minneapolis toward the Dakotas. This highway is an old concrete two-laner that hasn’t had much traffic since a four-laner went in parallel to it several years ago. When we pass a marsh, the air suddenly becomes cooler. Then, when we are past, it suddenly warms up again.
Pfirzig, R. Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance

6. Features of spoken discourse
SPEAKING
WRITING
Language is produced in ‘real time’ - instant retrieval of necessary language from memory.
Language is produced without time pressure - retrieval of language from memory can be assisted by reference.
Language produced has a ‘looser’ syntax.
Language produced has a more ‘rule-bound’, ordered syntax.
Grammatical structures are often ‘simpler’ and contains ‘slips’.
Grammar is more ‘complex’ and ‘accurate’.
Vocabulary used is relatively narrow in range.
Vocabulary used is broader in range.
Contains false starts, hesitations, paraphrasing.
Language flows in smooth continuous strings - i.e. sentences
Chunks of meaning separated by intonation, stress and pauses.
Chunks of meaning marked by punctuation, and paragraphs.
Communication strategies used when difficulties encountered in encoding.
Communication strategies may be used when there is a time pressure (e.g. in exams).
Speaking is interactive - the audience is frequently present. Listening also involved.
Audience frequently absent, but reading is also involved when reviewing what has been written.

7. Aspects of the speaking skill
Pronunciation
Intonation
Be just as explicit
and informative as
the situation requires
Phonology
Discourse management
Fluency
Strategies
Accuracy
Content
Word and sentence stress
Read signals
from listener
and adjust
message
Retrieve necessary vocabulary
Understand when to take a turn to speak and when to give way
Speaking
Apply grammatical
rules instantly
Phonology
Vocabulary
Use gesture and facial expression
Use time-gaining devices
Use communication strategies when in difficulty
Paraphrase when
meaning is not clear

8. Discourse management Read signals from listener and adjust message
Understand when to take a turn to speak and when to give way to the other speaker
Use back channelling when listening
Negotiate meaning when there’s misunderstanding – discourse repair
Manage openings and closings for interactions – adjacency pairs
Recognise functional purpose and respond appropriately

9. Look at the following short exchanges
Look at the following short exchanges. Comment on what you notice about them.
1 A: Can you give me a lift to the bus stop?
B: Yes, I can. I have a car.
2 A: That’s a nice dress.
B: I know it is.
3 A: You’re late!
B: Yes, it must be about 15 minutes altogether.
Speaker B has not acquired ……………………… competence, which is the knowledge of the rules of spoken interaction/social expectations.
discourse/pragmatic

10. Back channel
Read this dialogue and identify what is strange or unnatural about it. A: Hello, Manolo, how are you? B: Erm, I’m better, I’m better from my fall in the Lakes A: Why? What happened? B: Erm, we went for a walk in the Lakes with our teacher of English here and we climbed and when we came back from the mountain, I fell and broke something in my elbow… then I went to hospital in the night … but it took 3 hours and I had to wait for the next day …. in the morning I got this sling here you see … it’s not hurting because I have my arm bandaged and the sling keeps it very still, so it’s good… but I don’t sleep so well and get tired B: Can you take a shower? A: Yes, every day.

11. That must have been awful Yeah? Mmm I know what you mean
Use these phrases (or any others you can think of) which the listener could use as back channel, and re-write the dialogue. Then act it out together.
Oh dear
Oh no
How annoying
That must have been awful
Yeah?
Mmm I know what you mean
Oh my goodness
Add more questions about what is heard
McCarthy, M. Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers CUP

12. Role A
You are going to tell your partner a story about something that happened to you. It doesn’t have to be very exciting or amusing. You could talk about an event when you were surprised, excited or shocked, for example. You can begin by saying “I’ll tell you about something that happened to me….” You must get to the end of your story, whatever happens.
Role B
Your partner is going to tell you a story about something that happened to him/her. As you listen, try to interrupt as much as you possibly can. You can ask for repetition, or pretend you are not clear about what she/he is saying. You can ask more questions about each thing you hear, and try to change the topic of conversation, and so on.
Role C
Watch and listen to your two group members talking. Try to note down what each speaker does as they talk. Note down any difficulties they have and any ways they use to get out of the difficulties.

13. Strategies

14. Communication strategies
Paraphrase by giving an approximate version of what is to be expressed. Choose something which shares an aspect of the intended meaning. e.g. animal for rabbit
Make up a new word e.g. picture place for gallery
Describe the characteristics of the word, or gives examples, instead of the word itself. e.g. He cleaned the house with a ...it sucks in air, or I liked the ....., you know, tables, chairs, beds, and things
Directly translate the word form the native language. e.g. Danish grontsager (vegetables) - green things
Use the exact word from the native language. e.g. I don’t have any para (Turkish - money).
Use a foreign word and adapts it to sound like English. e.g. I love buying vestments. (French vêtements.)
Ask for assistance from the teacher, another student or uses a dictionary.
Use mime, gesture to express the meaning.
Ellis, R. (1994) The Study of Second Language Acquisition Oxford: OUP (adapted)

15. Choose only the pictures of the words you don’t know in English.
Talk to your partner: he/she is a shopkeeper and you must try to buy the object, using communication strategies.

16. Phonology – vowel sounds awareness
Look at the following collection of words. Work in pairs and make groups of words containing the same vowel sounds. Make as many groups as you think are necessary.
cot
hill
bin
caught
short
shot
bought
cat
pot
march
sheep
pill
court
match
heel
peel
cart
bath
ship
port

17. Phonology - intonation
How do you feel about it?
Look at the following dialogue. Take parts and use intonation to show your feelings in these different contexts:
two old friends chatting
jealous husband and wife
over-protective mother and son
A: Where were you last night?
B: Why?
A: Because when I rang at 10 o'clock, you weren't in.
B: No. I went to the cinema.
A: Oh really? Who with?
B: Just an old friend from university.
A: Oh.

18. Important and less important thought groups
Look at these sentences from a description of a wedding. Combine the sentences using a relative clause. Decide which part of your sentence is more important, and tell your partner.
The bride was looking absolutely radiant. She was wearing a white silk dress.
Two small children were walking behind her. They were about 5 years old.
The children looked very sweet. They were wearing frilly pink dresses.
The bride's father was walking beside his daughter. He was looking very proud.
The guests were sitting in their best clothes. Some of them were crying.

19. Phonology – sentence stress
Old and new information
1 Look at the dialogues and underline the stressed words.
A: I've lost my hat.
B: What kind of hat?
A: It was a sun hat.
B: What colour sun hat?
A: It was white. White with stripes.
B: There was a white hat with stripes in the car.
A: Which car?
B: The one I sold.
2 Do you notice a pattern in the words that are stressed?
3 Now try the following dialogue, using this stress pattern.
A: I want some shoes.
B: What kind of shoes?
A: Suede shoes.
B: Black or brown?
A: Neither. I want blue shoes. With thick black soles!

20. Correcting and checking
Look at the dialogue and underline the words that need to be stressed.
A: Can I have one cheese sandwich and two ham rolls, please?
B: That's one ham sandwich…
A: No, one cheese sandwich.
B: Sorry, that's one cheese sandwich and two ham sandwiches.
A: No two ham rolls.
B: Right… You did want two cheese sandwiches, didn't you?
A: No, I didn't. Just one.
B: Oh. I think I'd better write this down.

21. I didn’t say she stole my money.
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22. Word stress to show a difference in meaning
What's the difference in meaning between these two sentences?
1 I thought it was going to rain.
2 I thought it was going to rain.
1 I thought you'd have a nice time.
2 I thought you were going to Spain.
3 But I thought you were going with Maria.
4 I rather thought there might be problems.
5 I thought you'd been there.
6 I thought you spoke Italian.
7 I thought you were coming to my party on Saturday.