1. MGT 423.1 Class 2 Chapter 3: Learning, Motivation and Performance Feihan Ahsan BRAC University 21 st September’ 2013 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 3-1

2. A Few Definitions: A Theory is a set of assumptions, principles, or accepted facts that attempts to provide a plausible or rational explanation for something. They can be applied to other similar situations because they usually state a universal truth or scientific principle, and thus explain how something works Theories are important to training because good training programs are developed from sound theories about how people learn and what motivates them The most successful businesses all pay careful attention to theory. (ex- Microsoft regularly hires people from MIT, people who are very theoretically proficient) Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 3-1

3. A Few Definitions: (Contd.) KSA’s – knowledge, skills and attitudes (already discussed earlier) Motivation is defined as the amount of mental and physical effort given by an individual to achieve a desired outcome Motivation is an emotional element and is not directly observable However, motivation has effects on behaviour, which are observable (for example, more talking, less talking or more tense, disturbed etc.) Motivation arises from your needs (what you want to achieve), and your strategy for achieving those needs Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 3

4. A Few Definitions: (Contd.) Environment refers to the physical surroundings in which work happens, including barriers and obstacles to work Environment also includes the objects and events that are indicators of work performance, such as getting rewarded or punished Ex- attitude of colleagues, superiors etc. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 4

5. The Performance Model The performance model states that a person’s Performance (P) is a combination of Motivation (M), KSA’s and the Environment (E) Performance, P = M * KSA * E All three factors are crucial to performance, and good performance requires support from all 3 sides 5

6. The Performance Model Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 3-2 P = M x KSA x E ENVIRONMENT (E) KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS, AND ATTITUDES (KSA) MOTIVATION (M) PERFORMANCE (P)

7. The Performance Model Example:- If trainees don’t learn the material, then training has failed because there is insufficient Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes (KSA’s) If trainees learn but don’t try to use those skills in the job, then training has failed, because there is insufficient Motivation to do the job properly If trainees learn and try to use those skills in the job, but if obstacles in the work Environment prevent them from using those skills (lack of equipment, outdated machinery etc.), then training again has failed (because even though there is nothing wrong with the training program, the training objectives will not be achieved) So, training needs support from all 3 sides to be successful. 7

8. ERG Theory – Needs Theory ERG Theory was developed by Clayton Alderfrer, as an expansion to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs The basic assumption is that needs are the basis of our motivation, and it is because of needs that we do everything that we do According to Mr. Alderfrer, three separate categories of needs can be identified:- 1. Existence Needs- 2. Relatedness Needs 3. Growth Needs Hence, the acronym ERG… Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 3-8 Existence Needs – physiological and safety needs. Matches Maslow’s first 2 levels. Relatedness Needs – social and external esteem. Matches Maslow’s level 3 and 4. Growth Needs – internal esteem and self-actualization. Matches Maslow’s 4 th and 5 th levels.

9. ERG Theory – Needs Theory (Contd.) 1. Existence Needs Are physiological and safety needs such as food, security, shelter and accommodation. Also some certainty about the future- such as no danger or accidents, a safe and healthy life etc. The Existence needs matches with Maslow’s first 2 levels of the Pyramid Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 3-9 Existence Needs – physiological and safety needs. Matches Maslow’s first 2 levels. Relatedness Needs – social and external esteem. Matches Maslow’s level 3 and 4. Growth Needs – internal esteem and self-actualization. Matches Maslow’s 4 th and 5 th levels.

10. ERG Theory – Needs Theory (Contd.) 2. Relatedness Needs Are people’s need to valued and accepted by others. They are the need for interpersonal relationships and group memberships, and when a person forms these relationships, these needs are satisfied Ex- Relationships with family, friends, or colleagues etc. The relatedness needs match with Maslow’s level 3 and 4 of the Pyramid. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 3-10 Existence Needs – physiological and safety needs. Matches Maslow’s first 2 levels. Relatedness Needs – social and external esteem. Matches Maslow’s level 3 and 4. Growth Needs – internal esteem and self-actualization. Matches Maslow’s 4 th and 5 th levels.

11. ERG Theory – Needs Theory (Contd.) 3. Growth Needs Are feelings of self-worth and competency, i.e “Am I Good Enough?”. It also includes achieving our true potential, i.e. being the best that one can be. These feelings are satisfied by recognition, accomplishment, meeting and beating challenges, and gaining a feeling of fulfillment about oneself. Ex- For a marathon runner, beating his own best time would satisfy his growth needs. The Growth needs matches with Maslow’s 4 th and 5th levels of the Pyramid Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 3-11 Existence Needs – physiological and safety needs. Matches Maslow’s first 2 levels. Relatedness Needs – social and external esteem. Matches Maslow’s level 3 and 4. Growth Needs – internal esteem and self-actualization. Matches Maslow’s 4 th and 5 th levels.

12. Importance of ERG Theory to Training ERG Theory can help identify the causes of poor performance, and therefore the need for training Example- An employee might have strong relatedness needs (need for love, affection, or belonging) but his job maybe structured in such a way that he has to work alone most of the time. In this case, no amount of training to do the job properly will work. Because training does not increase the amount of relationships in a job, it only teaches you how to do the job better. So, in this case, we need a non-training solution. (such as posting to a different region, or a different branch of the office etc.) Spending expensive amounts on training in such a situation will be a loss for the firm Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 12

13. Importance of ERG Theory to Training (Contd.) Since existence, relatedness and growth are all needs that motivate a person, a successful training program, therefore, has to provide opportunities to satisfy all three needs. Example- 1. The training room and physical facility satisfy existence needs. If the room is comfortable, warm and safe, then existence needs will be satisfied. Demonstrating how the training will improve the skills and competencies of the person, and thus help him get a job (or a promotion) will also satisfy existence needs (the need for financial security) Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 13

14. Importance of ERG Theory to Training (Contd.) 2. Building a network of positive relationships, for example between trainees themselves, or among the trainer and trainees, will satisfy relatedness needs. 3. Using challenging training methods, such as debates, workshops or other competitive games will motivate people who are competitive and want to achieve something (in this case, they might be motivated to get full marks in the training program, or achieve the target KSA’s). Thus, it would keep them happy by satisfying their growth needs. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 14

15. Importance of ERG Theory to Training (Contd.) So, by including all types of needs in the training process (initially), you guarantee that there is something for everyone (at the start of the training program) But, after a while, the trainer has to understand the level of his audience, i.e. which needs satisfy them and motivate them the most (for the majority of trainees) and focus on those needs Trainees who have special needs (slow to learn, no background in subject etc) can then be separated and put into a beginner’s/qualifying class Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 15

16. Process Theories – Translating Needs into Action Process Theories describe how a person’s needs are translated into action Also the different ways by which behaviour modifications occur to affect levels of motivation Two important Process Theories:- 1. Classical Conditioning 2. Reinforcement Theory Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 16

17. Process Theories 1. Classical Conditioning Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 17

18. Process Theories 2. Reinforcement Theory The basics of Reinforcement theory come from the work of E.L Thorndike and his Law of Effect. The Law of Effect states that behaviour followed by satisfying experiences tends to be repeated, while behaviour followed by annoyance or dissatisfaction tends to be avoided. Four different types of behaviour modification:- 1.Positive Reinforcement 2.Negative Reinforcement 3.Punishment 4.Extinction Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 18

19. Process Theories 1. Positive Reinforcement Positive reinforcement occurs when your behaviour results in something desirable happening to you- either tangible (such as receiving money), psychological (such as feeling pleasure) or some combination of both. Basically, when you do something, something good happens to you, so you do it again. Example- A child helps Mom with washing her dishes, he gets a candy as a result. So in the future, he will most likely try to help Mom with washing dishes. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 19

20. Process Theories 2. Negative Reinforcement Negative reinforcement occurs when your behaviour results in something annoying, frustrating, or unpleasant going away. As a result of this, you are likely to repeat the behaviour Basically, when you do something, something bad goes away, so you do it again. Example- When you have a fever, If you take a Napa tablet, your fever goes away. Nothing good really happens to you, but you are relieved from a bad, or painful situation (by taking the Napa tablet). So, in the future, you are likely to do it again. (take the Napa tablet when you have a fever) Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 20

21. Dual Example: Sometimes the same act can include both negative and positive reinforcement. For example, if your office is a noisy place that employees find distracting or annoying as they work, you might allow workers who reach a certain productivity level to wear earphones playing the music of their choice. On one hand, this is positive reinforcement (reward) because the employees gain something positive when they reach the productivity goals. On the other hand, it is negative reinforcement because when they become more productive, they escape the noise and distraction -- a negative condition. So, productivity is negatively reinforced (as well as positively)

22. Process Theories 3. Punishment Punishment occurs when you receive something unpleasant or when you lose something desirable as a result of your behaviour. Punishment decreases the likelihood of the behaviour occurring in the future. Punishment can also be tangible, psychological or both and can come from the environment or be self-given (such as guilt). Basically, when you do something, something bad happens to you, so you stop doing it. Example- A child teases a girl. His Mom orders him to do dishes for the whole week. So, in the future, the child will not tease any more girls. Organizational Example: Fines, damages, losing holidays, etc Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 22

23. Process Theories 4. Extinction Extinction occurs when something that once gave you positive feelings no longer gives you that feeling anymore, so you stop doing it. Extinction takes time to happen, it is not instantaneous Basically, when you do something, something good happens, so you keep on doing it. After a while, the good thing doesn’t happen anymore, so eventually you lose interest and stop doing it. Example- You might really like the style of a certain author, so you keep on buying his books. But if at some point, the books become boring and don’t excite you anymore, slowly the positive feeling goes away and eventually, you stop buying his books (extinction). The initial positive feelings from reading the book becomes extinct Organizational Example: Effect of performance bonuses, first given, then stopped Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 23

24. Process Theories 4. Extinction Extinction occurs when something that once gave you positive feelings no longer gives you that feeling anymore, so you stop doing it. Extinction takes time to happen, it is not instantaneous Basically, when you do something, something good happens, so you keep on doing it. After a while, the good thing doesn’t happen anymore, so eventually you lose interest and stop doing it. Example- A Relationship. When you date someone for the first time, you might really like the person, and therefore, you go on more dates with him/her. (If)After a while, you lose interest in that person (the positive feelings don’t happen anymore), then you stop dating that person, and eventually breakup. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 24

25. Reinforcement vs Punishment Punishment can stop people from doing undesirable things. But, it has a lot of big weaknesses:- It does not show what the correct way is, only what is not the correct way. Punishment is demotivating. Even if you are telling them not to do a bad thing, you are telling it in a harsh, unkind way. So, they will become sad and depressed The punisher becomes very unpopular…..and employees start to hate him Employee Resistance- Sometimes punishment results in the opposite behaviour, i.e. the undesirable behaviour, which we wanted to stop in the first place. This happens because employees start to rebel, and starts viewing management as enemies, rather than joint people working toward a common goal. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 25

26. Reinforcement vs Punishment Reinforcement is better because:- The behaviour will occur without a supervisor present. For example, if employees get rewarded for turning off the lights before leaving a room, they will do it even if no one is present. But in punishment, you have to be present and make them turn off the lights Positive and Negative reinforcement can be used together- because negative reinforcement is a reflex action (it is done unconsciously). If it is also combined with rewards (positive reinforcement), then the behaviour becomes permanent and is strongly maintained Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 26

27. Process Theories – Translating Needs into Action Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 3-27 Classical Conditioning – the association of a generalized response to some signal in the environment. Reinforcement Theory – known as behavior modification or operant conditioning is an approach for stimulating a trainee’s desire to learn.  Positive Reinforcement – rewards – something desirable happens as a result.  Negative Reinforcement – punishment – something negative happens as a result. Expectancy Theory – describes the cognitive processes involved in deciding the best course of action for achieving goals.  Outcome –what’s in it for me?  Valence – subjective value of the outcome  EP Expectancy (Effort, Performance)  PO Expectancy (Performance, Outcome)

28. Behaviorist Model of Learning Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 3-28 Stimulus ResponseConsequence

29. Understanding Learning Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 3-29 The 2 Definitions of Learning in Theory Behaviorist Definition - A relatively permanent change in behavior – learning is synonymous with behavior. Cognitive Theorist Definition – a change in the content, organization and storage of information. Learning – a relatively permanent change in cognition resulting form experience and directly influencing behavior.

30. Some Training Implications of Cognitive and Behaviorist Learning Theory – Part 1 of 2 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 3-30 IssueCognitive ApproachBehaviorist Approach Learner’s roleActive, self-directed, self-evaluating Passive, dependent Instructor’s role Facilitator, coordinator, and presenter Director, monitor, and evaluator Training content Problem or task orientedSubject oriented Learner motivation More internally motivatedMore externally motivated

31. Some Training Implications of Cognitive and Behaviorist Learning Theory – Part 2 of 2 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 3-31 IssueCognitive ApproachBehaviorist Approach Training climateRelaxed, mutually trustful and respectful, collaborative Formal, authority oriented, judgmental, competitive Instructional goalsCollaboratively developedDeveloped by instructor Instructional activities Interactive, group, project oriented, experiential Directive, individual, subject oriented

32. The Cognitive Processes Involved in Social Learning Events and consequences in the learning situation are cognitively processed before they are learned or influence behavior. Motivation – both influences and is influenced by the other processes. Attention – becoming focused on particular objects and events in the environment. Retention – incoming information is processed for possible retention.  Symbolic Coding – translation of information into meaningful symbols.  Cognitive Organization – symbols are organized into the existing cognitive structure through associations.  Symbolic Rehearsal – visualizing or imagining how the knowledge or skill will be used. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 3-32

33. Example of a Lesson in Problem Solving – Part 1 of 5 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 3-33 Learning objective: Given a drawing of a plot of land, the student will generate a plan for a sprinkler system that will cover at least 90% of the land, using the least amount of materials (PVC pipe and sprinkler heads). EventMediaPrescription 1.Gaining attention Live instruction and overhead projector Show pictures of sprinkler coverage of a plot of land that has highly successful (90%) and one of unsuccessful (70%) coverage, and one using too many sprinkler heads, inviting attention to their differences. 2.Inform the learner of the objective SameThe problem to be solved is to design the most efficient sprinkler system for a plot of ground—one that covers at least 90% of the ground using the least amount of pipe and sprinkler heads.

34. Example of a Lesson in Problem Solving – Part 2 of 5 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 3-34 EventMediaPrescription 3.Stimulate recall of requisites Overhead projector Have the learners recall applicable rules. Since the sprinkler heads they will use spray in circles and partial circles, rules to be recalled are the area of: (1) a circle, (2) quarter and half circles, (3) rectangular area, and (4) irregular shapes (intersection of circular arcs with straight sides). 4.Presenting the stimulus material SameRestate the problem in general terms, and then add specific details: 1) rectangular lot 50 by 100 ft; 2) radius of the sprinklers, 5 ft; 3) water source in the center of the lot.

35. Example of a Lesson in Problem Solving – Part 3 of 5 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 3-35 EventMediaPrescription 5. Providing learning guidance, and 6. Eliciting performance Overhead projector The student will need to design tentative sprinkler layouts, draw them out, and calculate the relative efficiency of each. Guidance may be given by informing the learner of various options if it appears rules are not being applied correctly. For example, “Could you get more efficient coverage in the corner by using a quarter-circle sprinkler head?” Or “It looks like you have a lot of overlap; are you allowing for a 10% non-coverage?” Ask the learner what rule he is following for placing the sprinkler.

36. Example of a Lesson in Problem Solving – Part 4 of 5 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 3-36 EventMediaPrescription 7. Providing feedback Oral review by instructor Confirm good moves, when in a suitable direction. If the learner doesn’t see a possible solution, suggestions may be made. For example, “Why don’t you draw four circles that barely touch, calculate the area, then draw a rectangle around the circles and calculate the area of coverage to see how much you have?” 8. Assessing performance TeacherPresent a different problem using the same type of sprinkler, with different lot shape and size. Check the efficiency of the student’s solution in terms of coverage and amount of materials used.

37. Example of a Lesson in Problem Solving – Part 5 of 5 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 3-37 EventMediaPrescription 9. Enhancing retention and transfer WorksheetPresent several different problems varying in shape of lot, position of the water source, and area of sprinkler coverage. Assess the student’s ability to generalize problem solving to these new situations.

38. Motivation to Learn The intensity and the persistence of the trainee’s learning-directed activities related to the content of the training program. Peer Support Supervisor Support Climate for Transfer Individual Factors and Resistance Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 3-38