1. Phrases and Clauses

2. Noun phrases Expressions in which nouns form the principal or main element (e.g. a chair, the university, my car) are called noun phrases

3. Noun phrases The main element of the phrase is the noun, called the HEAD. This can be preceded by a subsidiary element called the MODIFIER

4. ModifierHead A The ____ ------- chair University Knowledge Skills

5. Modifiers Modifiers often determiners Other types of modifier are: Adjectives – his large house; a cruel deception; valuable skills. Nouns – so that a phrase may have two nouns, one acting as the head and the other as a modifier – an education policy; the house plans; furniture catalogues.

6. Post Modifiers Noun phrases can also have modifying elements coming after the head: called Post-modifiers. E.g. the men outside; the people excluded.

7. Prepositional phrases If a noun phrase begins with a preposition, then it is known as a prepositional phrase: E.g. By the dog; to your employer; with those cows. Prepositional phrases have two elements: An INITIATING element: ie, the preposition itself, and A COMPLETER

8. Prepositional phrases often occur or come after the head of a noun phrase. Known as post-modifiers of the head. E.g: the letter to your employer; The administration of the schools.

9. Verb phrases The ‘verb’ element in a clause need not necessarily be just a single word; It can be made up of several verbs: E.g. has been cooking; were crawling; has disappeared.

10. The last word of the phrase is the MAIN VERB Words that precede, come before, the main verb are AUXILLIARIES or AUXILLIARY VERBS E.g. has been cooking; were crawling; has disappeared.

11. In an expression like he has, the verb phrase is incomplete and said to be ELLIPTICAL: He has (been) He has ((had) his birthday)

12. Modal verbs may; might; can; could; will; would; shall; should; must; ought; need They can sing He might arrive tomorrow I must have lost my keys

13. Finite and non-finite verbs The ship disappeared The ship disappearing…. Somebody speaks for a few minutes Speaking for a few minutes…. He mentioned the evidence Mentioning the evidence…….

14. Key to the difference is to do with an important distinction within the functioning of language.

15. Finite examples can function independently as communications with an adressee (ie, telling us something) The ship disappeared – declarative sentence Did the ship disappear?

16. Non-finite constructions do not distinguish between telling and asking The ship disappearing…. Does not distinguish between telling and asking

17. Finite constructions have a subject and a verb; Non-finite constructions need not have a subject

18. Adjectival phrases Adjectival phrases have a HEAD We can say ‘every chair’ but not ‘every hot’ In noun phrases the noun head may have a determiner, while adjective heads cannot have a determiner Words modifying the adjective are called INTENSIFIERS We can say ‘terribly hot’ but not terribly chair’

19. Adjectival phrases IntensifierHead Very Somewhat Terribly harsh difficult hot

20. Nouns can be plural; while adjectives cannot be: E.g. The men were hungries * –*not possible as a sentence; The men were students

21. Basic sentence patterns SV The last train has arrived SVO ( C ) Your uncle left a message SVA The last train has arrived already SVO ( C )A Your uncle left a message yesterday SVCA The counsellors seem very determined this week

22. 1.His work is professional 2.They can keep the change 3.The sun is setting 4.The jury found her innocent after two hours 5.They might send me an invitation

23. Subordination and co-ordination A SIMPLE sentence consists of one clause. Clauses can be combined to make COMPLEX sentences: ie, sentences with more than one clause.

24. Two ways in which clauses in simple sentences can be combined: Co-ordinate Sub-ordinate

25. Co-ordinate Each clause equal: E.g. The man shot his horse (and) (he) took the carcass to the glue factory. Both clauses equal status

26. Sub-ordinate One clause is involved within the structure of another E.g. The girl, who was drinking a glass of wine, wore a red dress.