1. Independent Lebanon

2. The Jewel of the Eastern Mediterranean Prosperity of Beirut based on upheavals in Arab world in the 1950s Laissez-faire economic system – International banking center – Trade restrictions removed  Financial and commercial center Politically liberal – Home for political exiles – Haven of free expression – Center of intellectual exchange and political discussion – “Playground” in the Middle East

3. Sectarian harmony? Sectarian pluralism “worked” in Beirut Confessional politics – system based on a balance of sectarian rivalries Arab state, but could not be merged with another Arab state  ambiguous position towards pan-Arabism ( Nasser) Communal differences neutralized, not solved Family/religious ties stronger than national ties

4. Patron-client system Politics dominated by prominent families Za’im; “feudal lord dressed in tailored European suit” – primary responsibility to provide for his clients  enforced regional/sectarian interests -Gave rise to sectarian based blocs instead of ideological parties -Examples: Kataib/Phalange and the Progressive Socialist Party

5. Sunni discontent Fragmented Sunni Muslim organizations Many attracted to Nasser’s Pan-Arabism

6. Role of the president National Pact of 1943: President had to be a Maronite Christian The Constitution of 1926 gave the president strong powers (relative to parliament) Six-year terms – challenged by two first presidents Al-Khuri 1943-1952 Chamoun 1952-1958

7. Troubles in the ’50s Cold War rivalry Rise of Nasser Muslim demands for reform Big question: Pan-Arabism or closer ties to the West?  Chamoun decided not to join the Baghdad Pact (as an Arab state) but emphasized close friendship with the West Suez Crisis: Chamoun kept diplomatic ties w/GB and France  Nasser annoyed

8. Summer of 1958 Chamoun wanted to stay in power  unacceptable to Muslims  full-scale rebellion/civil war General Fuad Shihab refused to send in the army to quell the revolt Coup d’etat in Iraq  Chamoun requested US assistance to avoid same fate – 15.000 US Marines landed in Lebanon the next day! – US intent on helping the friendly regime in Lebanon Chamoun stepped down  Fuad Shihab president  return to normalcy

9. Shihabism Program of political and social reform Goal: Modernization of the state – More power to the central government – Basic welfare system – Public work projects; roads, electricity, water supply More Muslims in top administrative positions  a stake in the country Did not end sectarian politics Break-up of UAR eased tension over Pan-Arabism Muslim businessmen skeptical to Nasser’s “Arab socialism”

10. Contradictions Policies Arab relations improved without affecting Lebanese independence State redistribution of wealth Poorer areas of the country developed More fair distribution of posts among disadvantaged communities Results The gap between rich and poor was not reduced Larger state  larger bureaucracy Fairer distribution of positions enforced sectarian system Sunnis and Christians remained dominant in bureaucracy Role of state more prominent  complaints increased about power distribution

11. No changes? Shihab relied on the old notables for his government despite pledge to reduce their importance Notable dominance: – 1947-1972: 1/3 of all parliamentary seats split between 26 families – 1960: 1/4 of MPs elected inherited their seats – Ministerial positions filled with familiar leaders

12. No support for the system Presidency became more powerful under Shihab Relied on presidential office (Sarkis) and the Deuxieme Bureau (army intelligence dept.) to keep control Army unchanged No strong political party developed by Shihab; relied on Rashid al-Karame to muster parliamentary support  Limited powerbase for the president; his successor relied on Deuxieme Bureau and Prime Ministers’ parliamentary coalitions