1. 1
Introduction to Psychology

2. Introduction to Psychology
The SQ3R method
Psychology and the scientific method
Goals of psychology
Major schools of thought in psychology
Descriptive research method
Experimental method
Human and animal rights in research 2

3. SQ3R method Survey Question Read Recite Review I/Review II LO 1.1
Survey-Learning objectives, key terms, tables, boxes
Question-Learning question for each subheading; your own questions
Read-keep in mind question
Recite-answer the learning question-write it down, define key terms
ReviewI-answer the remember it questions, mypsych lab
ReviewII-review the entire chapter-read chapter summary, study guide, chapter practice test back of book

4. The more people at an accident the faster help will come.
Eyewitness testimony is often unreliable.
In close personal relationships opposites attract.
The majority of teenagers have good relationships with their parents.

5. Psychology is a science.
The scientific study of behavior and mental processes
Scientific method: orderly, systematic procedures researchers follow
Scientific method: how the research problem is identified, study is designed to investigate the problem, data is collected and analyzed, conclusions are made, and findings communicated

6. Steps of the Scientific Method
LO 1.2
Observe and theorize.
Formulate a hypothesis.
Design the study.
Collect data.
Apply results to the hypothesis.
Replication

7. Is Psychology a Science?
Theory
Principle proposed to explain how a number of separate facts are related.
Hypothesis
A testable prediction about the conditions under which a particular behavior or mental process may occur. 7

8. LO 1.2
Figure The Scientific Method These are the steps involved in the scientific method.

9. The Goals of Psychology
Description
Explanation
Prediction
Influence
Description-Identifying and classifying behaviors and mental processes as accurately as possible
Explanation-Proposing reasons for behaviors and mental processes
Prediction-Offering predictions (or hypotheses) about how a given condition or set of conditions will affect behaviors and mental processes
Influence-Using the results of research to solve practical problems that involve behavior and mental processes

10. The Goals of Psychology
Basic Research
Applied Research
Basic-Seeks new knowledge
Advances general scientific understanding
Applied-Solves practical problems
Improves the quality of life 10

11. Summarize it: The Goals of Psychology11

12. Evaluating Theories testable hypotheses
LO 1.8
testable hypotheses
solutions for real-world problems.
make people think-curiosity and creativity.

13. Psychology’s Roots
LO 1.4
Psychology began as a formal academic discipline in the 1800s.
Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920)
Considered the “father” of psychology

14. Schools of Thought in Psychology
Behaviorism
Psychoanalytic Psychology
Humanistic Psychology
Positive Psychology
Cognitive Psychology
Evolutionary Psychology
Biological (Physiological) Psychology
The Sociocultural Approach

15. Behaviorism John Watson “the science of behavior”
LO 1.5
John Watson
“the science of behavior”
Observable, measurable behavior
Environment
Most influential school of thought until the 1960s

16. Behaviorism Skinner’s Key Points
LO 1.5
Skinner’s Key Points
Behavior explained by conditions before and consequences after.
Operant conditioning
importance of reinforcement in learning and maintaining behavior
Behavior that is reinforced is likely to be repeated.

17. Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud Psychoanalysis Psychoanalytic Theory
LO 1.5
Sigmund Freud
Psychoanalysis
Personality theory
treatment method for psychological disorders
Psychoanalytic Theory
individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior as determined primarily by the unconscious
-mental thoughts are like iceburg-conscious thoughts are only the tip, most is unconscious

18. Humanistic Psychology
Humans have the capacity for choice, growth, and psychological health.
Positive View of Human Nature
People are innately good.
Humans possess free will.
Reject behaviorism and psychoanalysis, behavior not a result of environment or unconscious-humans are unique

19. Humanistic Psychology
Key Contributors:
Abraham Maslow
Theory of motivation
Hierarchy of needs
Carl Rogers
Client-centered therapy

20. Cognitive Psychology Focus on:
Mental processes (memory, thinking, learning) to transform information
Humans as active

21. Cognitive Psychology Gestalt Psychology Information-Processing Theory
The mind interprets events doesn’t just react to them.
Information-Processing Theory
The brain processes information in sequential steps
Similar to a computer’s serial processing

22. Evolutionary Psychology
Investigates:
Human behaviors necessary for survival
How behaviors adapted
Draws heavily on Darwin’s theory
Attachment language

23. Biological (Physiological) Psychology
Studies structures of the brain, neurotransmitters, hormones, effects of heredity
Often confused with evolutionary psychology
Evolutionary psychology -universal traits (for example language)
Biological psychology -individual differences
For example: ear infections and learning disabilities

24. The Sociocultural Approach
LO 1.5
How background and cultural experiences affect behavior and mental processes

25. Contemporary Psychological Perspectives
Many psychologists take an eclectic position
Combination of approaches to explain a particular behavior

26. Summarize It: Contemporary Perspectives in Psychology

27. Descriptive Research Methods
LO 1.10
Descriptions of behavior
Naturalistic and laboratory observation
Case study
Survey research
Correlational method
Early stages of research

28. Descriptive Research Methods Observation
LO 1.10
Naturalistic Observation
natural setting
just watching
Laboratory Observation
laboratory setting
more control and measurement

29. Descriptive Research Methods: Case Study
LO 1.10
Studies one person or small number of persons in depth
Advantages
rare psychological disorders or brain damage
Disadvantages
cause of behavior
observer bias
generalizability

30. Descriptive Research Methods: Surveys/Questionnaires
LO 1.11
Interviews and/or questionnaires
attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors of a group of people
Population
Sample
Representative sample 30

31. Descriptive Research Methods: Surveys/Questionnaires
Advantage
Lots of information, short time
Disadvantage
Representative sample
Honesty of responses
Wording of questions
Interviewer characteristics

32. Descriptive Research Methods: Correlation
Measures degree of a relationship
Correlation Coefficient
shows the strength (number) and direction (+ or -) of the relationship
+1.00 (a perfect positive correlation) to −1.00 (a perfect negative correlation)
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the correlational method?

33. Descriptive Research Methods: Correlation
Number shows strength
+ or – shows direction
Three types:
Negative correlation
Positive correlation
No correlation
X is related to Y
Negative-tv watching and grades
Positive-Stress and illness
No correlation-eye color and grades

34. Figure Positive and Negative Correlations Here are two graphs showing positive and negative correlations. (a) When positively correlated scores on two variables are graphed, the points fall along a line that rises from left to right. This graph might represent two variables such as amount of time spent studying and grades on an exam. As study time goes up, exam grades go up as well. (b) When negatively correlated scores on two variables are graphed, the points follow a line that declines from left to right. This graph might represent two variables such as amount of time spent watching television and grades on an exam. As TV time goes up, grades go down. 34

35. Descriptive Research Methods: Correlation
LO 1.12
Advantages
Information about one variable can be used to predict the other.
When experiments can’t be completed
Disadvantages
Does not show cause

36. Figure Correlation Does Not Prove Causation A correlation between two variables does not prove that a cause–effect relationship exists between them. There is a correlation between stress and illness, but that does not mean that stress necessarily causes illness. Both stress and illness may result from another factor, such as poverty or poor general health. 36

37. The Experimental Method: Experiments and Hypothesis Testing
LO 1.13
Identify cause-effect relationships
Causal hypotheses
X causes Y
Fruit and cereal for breakfast

38. The Experimental Method: Independent and Dependent Variables
LO 1.13
Independent Variable (X)
A factor or condition manipulated to see whether it causes any change in another behavior or condition
Dependent Variable (Y)
A factor or condition measured to determine the impact of the experimental manipulation
Taking aspirins improves headaches
Studying increases grades
Observation of aggression increases aggression
Color films more appealing

39. The Experimental Method: Experimental and Control Groups
LO 1.13
Experimental Group
Exposed to the independent variable
Control Group
Same conditions as experimental but not given the independent variable
Other reasons for improvement/change
Aspirin
studying
Lang experiment in book-4 groups-1expected alcohol, received tonic 2expected alcohol, received alcohol 3expected tonic, received alcohol

40. Alcohol or alcohol expectation
Figure The Mean Shock intensity Chosen by Provoked and unprovoked Participants In the Lang experiment, participants who thought they were drinking alcohol chose to give significantly stronger shocks, whether provoked or not, than those who believed they were drinking only tonic. Source: Data from Lang et al. (1995)
Alcohol or alcohol expectation

41. Experimental Method Limitations: Confounding Variables
LO 1.14
Experimental Method Limitations: Confounding Variables
Factors other than the independent variable that can affect results
Selection Bias
Random assignment
Placebo Effect
person’s expectations, not treatment
Experimenter Bias
A researcher’s expectations
Double blind technique
Confounding variables-the more you control the less likely it is like the real world

42. Experimental Method Limitations
Cannot assign participants to groups
Independent variable will cause harm
Naturally occurring variable –race, IQ

43. Summarize It: Research Methods In Psychology

44. Protecting Human Participants’ Rights
LO 1.16
Legality
Institutional Approval
Informed Consent
Deception
Debriefing
Clients, Patients, Students, and Subordinates

45. Protecting Human Participants’ Rights
LO 1.16
Payment for Participation
Participants can be paid.
Must be informed about what is expected in return for payment
Publication

46. Protecting Animals’ Rights
LO 1.16
Legality
Supervision by Experienced Personnel
Minimization of Discomfort

47. Specialties in Psychology
Clinical Psychologists
Diagnose and treat mental and behavioral disorders
School Psychologists
Diagnose and treat learning and behavioral problems interfering with learning

48. Specialties in Psychology
Forensic Psychologists
Work with issues involving psychology and law
Counseling Psychologists
Work with adjustment problem that are generally less severe than those handled by clinical psychologists

49. Specialties in Psychology
Physiological Psychologists
Study the relationship between physiological processes and behavior
Experimental Psychologists
Conduct research in memory, sensation, perception, motivation, and emotion

50. Specialties in Psychology
Developmental Psychologists
Study change throughout the life span
Educational Psychologists
Specialize in the study of teaching and learning

51. Specialties in Psychology
Social Psychologists
Investigate individual feelings, thoughts, and behavior in a social setting—in the presence of others
Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychologists
Study the relationships between people and their work environments

52. Psychological Perspectives
Behavioral perspective
Environment
Watson, Skinner
Psychoanalytic perspective
Emotions, unconscious, early childhood experiences
Freud
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53. Psychological Perspectives
Humanistic perspective
Humans as unique, and capable of choice and growth
Maslow, Rogers
Cognitive perspective
Mental processes
Evolutionary perspective
Inherited traits
Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 53

54. Psychological Perspectives
Biological perspective
Biological structures
Sociocultural perspective
Social and cultural variables
Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 54