1. Direct and indirect speech
wording
direct speech reports someone’s
indirect speech reports someone’s
meaning

2. forms of speech quotations
quotations usually involve two clauses
clause 1
clause 2
whose saying
(=reporting clause)
the saying eg
direct
John said
I’m going home
indirect
John said
that he was going home
except
free direct speech
(1 clause)

3. direct speech: reporting someone’s wording
The two clauses – who said + what they said –
can occur in any order, i.e.
‘What’s going on?’ Ali demanded.
what was said
who said
Ali demanded, ‘What’s going on?’
and…
what was said
who said

4. ‘What’s going on?’ Ali demanded.
Subject and verb order in the reporting clause can be reversed IF the reporting clause comes last
‘What’s going on?’ Ali demanded. S V
‘What’s going on?’ demanded Ali . V S

5. punctuation in direct speech
‘I am going home,’ said John, ‘Are you coming?’
punctuation
marks are
placed
inside the
quotation
marks
comma
before
or after
the quoted
words;

6. words within words
a quote within a quote is enclosed in quotation marks that are not the same
as those already in use
e.g. “What did Ma say?” asked Mei.
“Ma said ‘Come home’,” Ali replied.

7. indirect speech: reporting someone’s meaning
John said (that) he was going home.
warning
The two clauses
– who said + what they said –
cannot occur in any order;
the reporting clause (i.e. the one that identifies who said) must come first.

8. grammatical features of indirect speech
When we say something we identify persons, things, places and times with reference to the speech situation.
e.g. Sue said, “I stayed here last year”
I stayed here last year
Sue
Ai Lee

9. When we report the meaning of the saying through indirect speech, we must transform all references to the speech situation - time, place and persons.
e.g. Sue said she had stayed there the year before

10. transforming references to persons
people refer to themselves using the personal pronoun (I/me). This 1st person pronoun has to be transformed into a 3rd person pronoun (he/she)

11. pronouns (personal and demonstrative) in indirect speech
John said,
“I am coming.”
e.g.
John said he was coming
“I know this trick
of yours,”
said Alice
Alice said she knew that trick of his.

12. time and place in indirect speech
tomorrow
becomes
the following day
yesterday
the day before
(the previous day)
today/tonight
that day/night
here
there

13. time and place in indirect speech
e.g.
John said,
“I can walk here tonight.”
John said he could walk there that night.

14. tense/modality in indirect speech
present tense
becomes
past tense
present continuous
past continuous
present perfect
past perfect
can
could
shall/will
should/would
may/might
might
must/ has to
had to

15. tense / modality in indirect speech
John said, “I am coming.”
John said he was coming
John said, “We left yesterday.”
John said they had left the day before.
John said, “We must go tomorrow.”
John said they had to go the next day.

16. reported questions in indirect speech
in most question forms the order of Subject and auxiliary verb is: auxiliary followed by Subject, e.g.
“When will he be coming?” she asked
Aux S
When a question is reported indirectly then the order is Subject followed by auxiliary, e.g.
She asked when he would be coming S
Aux

17. “Help yourselves,” he said
reported commands
“Help yourselves,” he said
Help yourselves
He told (invited) them to help themselves
He told (invited) us to help ourselves

18. free speech free direct speech ‘Coming out tonight?’
‘No, I’ve got to work.’
in free direct speech the reporting clause (who said) disappears
a literary device
free indirect speech
She wouldn’t go out tonight, she thought. She had work to do.

19. free indirect speech has features of both direct & indirect speech
She wouldn’t go out tonight, she thought. She had work to do.
the reporting clause can come after the quote;
the quote contains mixed references to time, place and persons.

20. the do-er of the action – the chaser – is the boy
Unit 11
Active and passive
1.The boy chased the girl The girl was chased by the boy.
the do-er of the action – the chaser – is the boy
in clause 1 the –er role is expressed by
a noun phrase – The boy
in clause 2 the –er role is expressed by a prepositional phrase – by the boy
clause 1 is in the active;
clause 2 is in the passive. 2

21. Unit 11
why use the passive?
to speak impersonally, without assigning someone or something the responsibility for the event.
e.g. The girl was chased.
The window was smashed.
This makes our message seem detached and objective 3

22. Making the active sentence passive
Unit 11
Making the active sentence passive
active
subject
verb
object
The boy saw the girl (didn’t he?)
The girl was seen by the boy (wasn’t she?)
subject
verb
object
passive 4

23. The ship sailed at midnight
warning
not all verbs can be expressed as either active or passive. Some verbs can only be expressed as active, i.e. most intransitive verbs, e.g.
The ship sailed at midnight

24. common errors
inverting subject and auxiliary in reported questions, e.g.
When will they be coming?
She asked when would they be coming.
She asked when they would be coming.

25. jokingly...
Dad, today the teacher asked me if I had any brothers or sisters.
That’s nice of her to take an interest in you. What did she say when you told her you are an only child?
She said, “Thank goodness.”

26. At a restaurant Waiter, what are these coins doing in my soup?
Well, sir, you said you would stop coming to this restaurant unless there was some change in the meals.

27. What kind of ants can be found in houses?
OccupANTS

28. A teacher asked his class to write an essay about a football match
A teacher asked his class to write an essay about a football match. A minute later all the students were writing except for one child.
The teacher looked at her paper.
It said, “The game was cancelled because of rain.”

29. Why are you putting a bandage on your pay cheque?
Because my salary has just been cut.

30. Task a)
Lin said she did not know why she had been so honoured, although she said that she had been wearing all her badges from when she was in the air force. She described how, when they had got on the plane, the crew had taken her on first, carrying her on with a lift. She recalled that when she first boarded, she and the pilot had been the only people sitting in the plane.

31. Changing from direct to indirect speech
make incomplete/unpunctuated sentences into complete/punctuated sentences.
Omit filler words such as really and er.
Use a range of verbs to precede or follow. what was spoken, e.g. described, recalled.
Change from first person to third person.
Change from present to past, past to past perfect

32. text in direct speech vs text in indirect speech
informal
immediate
creates sense of character
sometimes difficult to follow
Indirect:
formal
removed
less sense of character
easier to follow

33. Task b) 1. No one wants to take the blame for losing the file
2. The play is considered an object in its own right, distinct from its author
3. There is no single subject for this statement
4. He was not injured deliberately, or by an animate agent, so there is no clear subject
5. Someone must have broken the window, but the structure suggests that no one wants to take responsibility for it, or the agent is not known

34. 6. Who conducted the research is not considered relevant.
7. The passive is used to sound factual.
8. This is reporting a scientific fact, with no need to know who did the heating.

35. changing from passive to active
Regrettably,
(I regret that)
I lost your file.
Regrettably, your file has been lost.
you will be paid $5000 so that it can be replaced.
I will pay you $5000 so that you can replace it.
Shakespeare wrote Macbeth in 1606.
Macbeth was written in 1606.

36. “The pilot must have seen the badges on my jacket,” said Lin.
Lin surmised/speculated that the pilot had seen the badges on her jacket.
Lin claimed that the pilot had almost certainly seen the badges on her jacket.
certainty (opinion)
must;
surmise; speculate

37. “I’m in a wheelchair so I must be lifted into the plane,” explained Lin.
Lin explained that, because she was in a wheelchair, she had to be lifted into the plane.
Lin explained that, because she was in a wheelchair, she must be lifted into the plane
0bligation;
must;
have to

38. “I’m in a wheelchair so I must be lifted into the plane,” explained Lin.
Lin explained that, because she is in a wheelchair, she must be lifted into the plane.
0bligation;
must;
have to
Lin explained that, because she is in a wheelchair, she has to be lifted into the plane.