1. Conditioning and Learning February 2016

2. AP Outline Key Terms Non-Associative Learning Non-Associative Learning Habituation Habituation Sensitization Sensitization Difference between learned and unlearned behavior Difference between learned and unlearned behavior Law of effect -Thorndike Law of effect -Thorndike Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning Operant conditioning Operant conditioning Skinner, Pavlov Skinner, Pavlov Acquisition Acquisition Extinction Extinction Spontaneous recovery Spontaneous recovery Generalization Generalization Discrimination Discrimination Higher-order conditioning Higher-order conditioning Effects of reinforcement and punishment Effects of reinforcement and punishment Reinforcement and omission training Reinforcement and omission training Shaping Behavior modification Active and passive avoidance Reinforcement schedules, delay of reinforcement, motivation Graphs used to show results of experiments Principles of learning and practical applications Emotional learning Taste aversion Coping versus helplessness Biological Factors Mirror Neurons Insight Latent learning Social learning Cognitive Learning

3. Basics Learning and Conditioning Insight into understanding behavior Insight into understanding behavior And how to manage behavior And how to manage behavior Comes with an understanding of how we learn. We learn through- Conditioning, observation, and experience We learn through- Conditioning, observation, and experience Most learning is done by observing and imitating actions of others Most learning is done by observing and imitating actions of others

4. Definitions Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience. “Learning is an adaptive process through which experience modifies pre-existing behavior and understanding” Reinforcement Reinforcement any event that increases the probability that a response will occur again. any event that increases the probability that a response will occur again. Response- is any identifiable behavior Response- is any identifiable behavior Can be observable actions Can be observable actions Can be internal = heartbeat increases Can be internal = heartbeat increases

5. Habituation We are naturally in-tune to stimuli- loud noises, special tastes, pain… Novel Stimuli- things we have not experienced before, attract our attention (perception) Habituation= is a form of adaptation, a form of learning, that “Our attention to unchanging stimuli decreases over time… After our response to a stimulus has habituated, it may quickly return if the stimulus changes

6. Habituation or Sensory Adaptation Sensory Adaptation: Sensory Adaptation: Unchanging stimuli has a reduced effect. Unchanging stimuli has a reduced effect. Habituation: Habituation: (Coolidge Effect) (Coolidge Effect) “If you are exposed to the same stimulus over and over your response decreases.” “If you are exposed to the same stimulus over and over your response decreases.”

7. Sensitization Sensitization- simple form of learning, is an increase in responsiveness to stimuli… example exaggerated responses to unexpected, potentially threatening sights or sounds, especially during periods of emotional arousal… Sensitization and habituation help us adapt to our environment.

8. Opponent Process Theory Opponent Process Theory Richard Solomon (researcher) Explains how habituation occurs “new stimulus events- especially those that arouse strong positive or negative emotions- disrupts psychological homeostasis.” This disruption creates an opposite process that counteracts the disruption and eventually restores equilibrium. … eventually if the stimuli occurs often enough the opponent process occurs more rapidly. Eventually it will suppress the initial response…”

9. Associational Learning: Classical Conditioning Basic Idea: Basic Idea: Behavior or Learning can be explained by the unconscious pairing of stimuli Behavior or Learning can be explained by the unconscious pairing of stimuli Classical Conditioning relates to stimuli that creates a reflexive (biological) response/behavior Classical Conditioning relates to stimuli that creates a reflexive (biological) response/behavior “A Neutral Stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that reliably provokes a response.” A Neutral Stimulus only by association begins to elicit a response.

10. Antecedents and Consequences Relates to what happens before and after a response. Relates to what happens before and after a response. Antecedent- events that precede a response Antecedent- events that precede a response Consequence- effects that follow a response Consequence- effects that follow a response

11. Classical Conditioning “Before a response” “Before a response” “A Neutral Stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that reliably provokes a response.” “A Neutral Stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that reliably provokes a response.” A Neutral Stimulus only by association begins to elicit a response. A Neutral Stimulus only by association begins to elicit a response. “Antecedent events become associated with one another” “Antecedent events become associated with one another” A stimulus that does not produce a response is linked with one that does. A stimulus that does not produce a response is linked with one that does. Learning occurs when new stimulus elicits a response Learning occurs when new stimulus elicits a response

12. Classical Conditioning Example Stimulus that reliably triggers a response- Stimulus that reliably triggers a response- Puff of Air to the Eye --  causes a blink Puff of Air to the Eye --  causes a blink (Natural Stimulus) (reflex- non-learned response) (Natural Stimulus) (reflex- non-learned response) Sound of horn is paired with puff of air Sound of horn is paired with puff of air Repetition of paired stimulus causes association of horn with puff of air.  Soon horn will make people blink Repetition of paired stimulus causes association of horn with puff of air.  Soon horn will make people blink

13. Create an Example of Classical Conditioning Maximum two people Maximum two people No repeat examples No repeat examples UCS UCS NS NS UCR UCR CS CS CR CR

15. UCS _pinch _____---  UCR___ anxiety___ UCS _pinch _____---  UCR___ anxiety___ NS __snap fing___+ _pinch ___UCS-----  UCR— anxiety NS __snap fing___+ _pinch ___UCS-----  UCR— anxiety Expectancy- Expectancy- CS— comp  CR _ sal ___ CS— comp  CR _ sal ___

16. Key Terms reinforced (NS) Neutral Stimulus= Bell (NS) Neutral Stimulus= Bell (CS) Conditioned Stimulus- a stimulus that = learning and evokes a desired response – (NS becomes CS) (CS) Conditioned Stimulus- a stimulus that = learning and evokes a desired response – (NS becomes CS) (US) Unconditioned Stimulus- or natural stimulus=meat stimulus innately capable of eliciting a response. (US) Unconditioned Stimulus- or natural stimulus=meat stimulus innately capable of eliciting a response. (UR) Unconditioned Response= non-learned, reflex, innate (UR) Unconditioned Response= non-learned, reflex, innate

17. Principles of Classical Conditioning Acquisition Acquisition Higher Order Conditioning Higher Order Conditioning Expectancies Expectancies Extinction Extinction Spontaneous Recovery Spontaneous Recovery Generalization Generalization Discrimination Discrimination Stimulus Discrimination Stimulus Discrimination Conditioned Emotional Response Conditioned Emotional Response Vicarious + Second Hand Conditioning Vicarious + Second Hand Conditioning Aversive Conditioning Aversive Conditioning

18. Principles of Classical Conditioning How conditioning occurs. Acquisition- or training – a conditioned response must be reinforced (strengthened) Acquisition- or training – a conditioned response must be reinforced (strengthened) Classical conditioning is reinforced when the conditioned stimulus is paired with an Unconditioned Response. Classical conditioning is reinforced when the conditioned stimulus is paired with an Unconditioned Response. * * Timing: classical conditioning works best when the conditioned stimulus preceeds the unconditioned stimulus. (tight time sequence is best) Higher-Order Conditioning- once a response is learned it can be used like an Unconditioned stimulus and be paired with another neutral stimulus to form a new conditioned stimulus (advertisers use) Higher-Order Conditioning- once a response is learned it can be used like an Unconditioned stimulus and be paired with another neutral stimulus to form a new conditioned stimulus (advertisers use)

19. Principles of Classical Conditioning How conditioning occurs. Expectancy: Expectation about how events are interconnected Expectancy: Expectation about how events are interconnected Extinction: Weakening of a conditioned response through removal of reinforcement Extinction: Weakening of a conditioned response through removal of reinforcement Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of a learned response following apparent extinction Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of a learned response following apparent extinction

20. Conditioning Principles Stimulus Generalization: A tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar, but not identical, to a conditioned stimulus (e.g., responding to a buzzer or a hammer banging when the conditioning stimulus was a bell) Stimulus Generalization: A tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar, but not identical, to a conditioned stimulus (e.g., responding to a buzzer or a hammer banging when the conditioning stimulus was a bell) Stimulus Discrimination: The ability to respond differently to various stimuli (e.g., Rudy will respond differently to various bells (alarms, school, timer)) Stimulus Discrimination: The ability to respond differently to various stimuli (e.g., Rudy will respond differently to various bells (alarms, school, timer))

21. Classical Conditioning Is passive. Is passive. It happens to the learner when a US follows a CS. It happens to the learner when a US follows a CS. It depends on reflex responses It depends on reflex responses

22. Conditioned Emotional Response Emotional responses may be linked to new stimuli Emotional responses may be linked to new stimuli Pain in dentist office -  thought causes reaction Pain in dentist office -  thought causes reaction Response of Involuntary Autonomic Nervous system “Fight or flight response” Response of Involuntary Autonomic Nervous system “Fight or flight response” Linked with new stimuli and situations  through Classical Conditioning Linked with new stimuli and situations  through Classical Conditioning

23. Learned Fears are Phobias Phobias are based on Emotional Conditioning Phobias are based on Emotional Conditioning A fear that persists even when no realistic danger exists. A fear that persists even when no realistic danger exists. Animals, waters, heights, thunder, fire, bugs Animals, waters, heights, thunder, fire, bugs Therapy for phobias includes Desensitization- Therapy for phobias includes Desensitization- Is used to extinguish fears- anxiety and phobias Is used to extinguish fears- anxiety and phobias Includes gradual exposure to phobic stimuli- short term and more time. Includes gradual exposure to phobic stimuli- short term and more time.

24. Example of Learning Teaching a dog a trick- Teaching a dog a trick- Reinforce response by -  giving dog food Reinforce response by -  giving dog food Teach a child to be neat give praise when they clean room. (Response) (Reinforcement) (Response) (Reinforcement)

25. Classical Conditioning and Ivan Pavlov Russian physiologist who studied digestion Russian physiologist who studied digestion Used dogs to study salivation when dogs were presented with meat powder Used dogs to study salivation when dogs were presented with meat powder Also known as Pavlovian or Respondent Conditioning Also known as Pavlovian or Respondent Conditioning Reflex: Automatic, non-learned response Reflex: Automatic, non-learned response

26. In operant conditioning, a response that is followed by a reinforcing consequence becomes more likely to occur on future occasions. In the example shown, a dog learns to sit up when it hears a whistle

27. Fig. 8.2 An apparatus for Pavlovian conditioning. A tube carries saliva from the dog’s mouth to a lever that activates a recording device (far left). During conditioning, various stimuli can be paired with a dish of food placed in front of the dog. The device pictured here is more elaborate than the one Pavlov used in his early experiments.

28. Taste Aversion Classical Conditioning to create an aversive reaction/association to something and Nausea Classical Conditioning to create an aversive reaction/association to something and Nausea Example of coyotes and tainted meat… Example of coyotes and tainted meat…

29. Reinforcement and Response Reinforcement- any event that increases the probability that a response will occur again. Reinforcement- any event that increases the probability that a response will occur again. Response- is any identifiable behavior Can be observable actions Can be internal = heartbeat increases

30. Operant Conditioning Responses followed by reinforcement cause frequency of response to increase. Responses followed by reinforcement cause frequency of response to increase. Learning is based on consequences of responding Learning is based on consequences of responding Responses are followed by reinforcers Responses are followed by reinforcers Example: Example: Wear a hat--  get compliments  Wear hat _(Antecedent)_(Reinforcement)____more get more complements (Consequence) Wear a hat--  get compliments  Wear hat _(Antecedent)_(Reinforcement)____more get more complements (Consequence)

31. Operant Conditioning Applies to all living creatures Applies to all living creatures Can be used to alter behavior Can be used to alter behavior We associate responses with their consequences We associate responses with their consequences Acts that are reinforced tend to be repeated. Acts that are reinforced tend to be repeated. Thorndike Law of Effect: The probability of a response is altered by the effect it has) Thorndike Law of Effect: The probability of a response is altered by the effect it has) and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again Learning is strengthened each time a response is followed by a satisfying state of affairs. Learning is strengthened each time a response is followed by a satisfying state of affairs. Edward Thorndike (Law of Effect) B.F. Skinner

32. Operant Conditioning Characteristics Learner Actively “Operates on” the environment Learner Actively “Operates on” the environment Refers mainly to learning voluntary responses Refers mainly to learning voluntary responses Example: T.V. Remote  Pushing the button is reinforced by gaining the result Example: T.V. Remote  Pushing the button is reinforced by gaining the result

33. Positive Reinforcement Idea that reward affects learning Idea that reward affects learning Operant Reinforcers = any event that follows a response and increases its probability of occurring again. Operant Reinforcers = any event that follows a response and increases its probability of occurring again.

34. Fig. 8.9 The Skinner box. This simple device, invented by B. F. Skinner, allows careful study of operant conditioning. When the rat presses the bar, a pellet of food or a drop of water is automatically released. (A photograph of a Skinner box appears in Chapter 1.) Conditioning Chamber Animals take action to satisfy needs. Behavior causes consequences  reinforces behavior

35. Vicarious + Second Hand Conditioning Occurs when we learn to respond emotionally to a stimulus by observing another person’s reactions. Occurs when we learn to respond emotionally to a stimulus by observing another person’s reactions. We can be conditioned vicariously We can be conditioned vicariously

36. Operant Learning Based on information and expectancy Based on information and expectancy A certain response (behavior)- will have a certain effect at certain times A certain response (behavior)- will have a certain effect at certain times

37. Operant Conditioning Characteristics Contingent Reinforcement Contingent Reinforcement Reinforcement works best when given Reinforcement works best when given after -  desired response has occurred. after -  desired response has occurred. Timing of Reinforcement is also important- Operant Reinforcement is most effective when it rapidly follows a correct response. Timing of Reinforcement is also important- Operant Reinforcement is most effective when it rapidly follows a correct response. Delay in reinforcement = less response Delay in reinforcement = less response Size of Reinforcement effects behavior… Size of Reinforcement effects behavior…

38. Shaping The gradual molding of response to a desired behavior The gradual molding of response to a desired behavior (animals taught to perform) (animals taught to perform) Beginning incremental- reinforcement till desired response occurs Beginning incremental- reinforcement till desired response occurs Step by step approximations- are refined Step by step approximations- are refined “Successive Approximations” “Successive Approximations”

39. Operant Extinction Learned responses that are not reinforced gradually fade away Learned responses that are not reinforced gradually fade away Takes time Takes time Spontaneous recovery still works Spontaneous recovery still works

40. Superstitious Behavior Unnecessary responses associated with successful Reinforcers Unnecessary responses associated with successful Reinforcers Appear to produce reinforcement Appear to produce reinforcement Skinner- pigeon study Skinner- pigeon study Varied ratio of reinforcement Varied ratio of reinforcement The organism associates a behavior with reinforcement The organism associates a behavior with reinforcement

41. The difference between Punishment and Negative Reinforcement: Reinforcement is to INCREASE frequency of behavior. Reinforcement is to INCREASE frequency of behavior. Punishment DECREASES behavior. So it's just what you do to increase or decrease behavior. Punishment DECREASES behavior. So it's just what you do to increase or decrease behavior. Positive means ADD (like in math) and negative means SUBTRACT. So Punishment is ADDING something to DECREASE behavior. Negative Reinforcement is SUBTRACTING something to INCREASE behavior. Positive means ADD (like in math) and negative means SUBTRACT. So Punishment is ADDING something to DECREASE behavior. Negative Reinforcement is SUBTRACTING something to INCREASE behavior. Ex: Positive Punishment- ADDING detention to DECREASE tardiness if someone is late to class (ADD aversive stimulus) Ex: Positive Punishment- ADDING detention to DECREASE tardiness if someone is late to class (ADD aversive stimulus) Negative Reinforcement- SUBTRACTING chores in order to INCREASE frequency of good grades when a son or daughter Negative Reinforcement- SUBTRACTING chores in order to INCREASE frequency of good grades when a son or daughter brings home good report card (SUBTRACT aversive stimulus) brings home good report card (SUBTRACT aversive stimulus) People like to get Negative Reinforcement, whereas people usually do not like to get Positive Punishment. People like to get Negative Reinforcement, whereas people usually do not like to get Positive Punishment. You just have to look at whether you want the behavior to increase or decrease in frequency, and whether something is being added or subtracted in order to get to that point. You just have to look at whether you want the behavior to increase or decrease in frequency, and whether something is being added or subtracted in order to get to that point.

42. Negative Reinforcement Making a response removes an unpleasant event Making a response removes an unpleasant event Increases responding by ending discomfort Increases responding by ending discomfort Headache-  discomfort---take aspirin headache will be negatively reinforced Headache-  discomfort---take aspirin headache will be negatively reinforced Rat given electric shock-  presses bar to remove shock Rat given electric shock-  presses bar to remove shock Punishment is not negative reinforcement Punishment is not negative reinforcement

43. Both Positive and Negative reinforcement Lead to increases in response (behaviors) frequencies Lead to increases in response (behaviors) frequencies Negative – action to end discomfort Negative – action to end discomfort Positive- action to get reward Positive- action to get reward

44. Punishment Decreases responding Decreases responding Refers to following a response with an aversive consequence Refers to following a response with an aversive consequence Punishment decreases the response or the likelihood that the response will occur again. Punishment decreases the response or the likelihood that the response will occur again. Punishment occurs when a reinforcer or positive state of affairs is removed example- privileges Punishment occurs when a reinforcer or positive state of affairs is removed example- privileges

45. Operant Reinforcers Primary Reinforcers Primary Reinforcers Secondary Reinforcers Secondary Reinforcers Feedback Feedback

46. Primary Reinforcers Natural, Non-learned, Rooted in Biology Natural, Non-learned, Rooted in Biology Produce comfort, End discomfort Produce comfort, End discomfort Fill an immediate physical need- food, water, sex Fill an immediate physical need- food, water, sex Actions reflect primary Reinforcers Actions reflect primary Reinforcers

47. Intra-Cranial Stimulation Direct activation of pleasure centers Direct activation of pleasure centers Example- Rat Experiments Example- Rat Experiments Primary Reinforcer Primary Reinforcer Brain and Bio-psychology Electrodes stimulate pleasure centers in certain parts of the hypothalamus Dopamine = drugs activate pleasure centers All this relates to reinforcement, example rats will continuously press a bar when electrodes are stimulating part of the hypothalamus.

48. Secondary Reinforcers Learned Learned $, praise, attention, approval $, praise, attention, approval Success, affection, grades Success, affection, grades Can be associated with a primary reinforcer (food + secondary –praise) Can be associated with a primary reinforcer (food + secondary –praise) Token reinforcer- a tangible, secondary reinforcer can be exchanged for primary reinforcer Token reinforcer- a tangible, secondary reinforcer can be exchanged for primary reinforcer Don’t lose reinforcing value-easily Don’t lose reinforcing value-easily

49. Social Reinforcers Learned desires for attention and approval Learned desires for attention and approval Attention + approval can change the behavior Attention + approval can change the behavior

50. Feedback Definition: Knowing level of degree of achieving desired results Definition: Knowing level of degree of achieving desired results Learning needs responsive environment + information Learning needs responsive environment + information Knowledge of results  information about the effect a response had Knowledge of results  information about the effect a response had Provides rapid learning Provides rapid learning Improves learning and performance Improves learning and performance Should be Frequent, Immediate, and detailed Should be Frequent, Immediate, and detailed

51. Reinforcement Schedules Continuous Reinforcement Continuous Reinforcement Fixed Ratio Schedule Fixed Ratio Schedule Variable Ratio=Intermittent Reinforcement Variable Ratio=Intermittent Reinforcement Fixed Interval Fixed Interval Variable Interval Variable Interval Delayed Reinforcement Delayed Reinforcement

52. Reinforcement Schedules Continuous reinforcement- reinforcement follows correct responses Continuous reinforcement- reinforcement follows correct responses Variable Ratio Reinforcement not every response is reinforced (gambling) Variable Ratio Reinforcement not every response is reinforced (gambling) Behavior is highly resistant to extinction Behavior is highly resistant to extinction Makes habit stronger Makes habit stronger Due to expectations for reinforcement Due to expectations for reinforcement Schedules of Reinforcement Schedules of Reinforcement

53. Cognitive Learning Mental information Mental information Mental processing Mental processing Acquisition of mental information: including observation or through language Acquisition of mental information: including observation or through language Thoughts, Perceptions, Expectations = cognition Thoughts, Perceptions, Expectations = cognition

54. Cognitive Processes in Learning: Traditional behaviorists believed that “stimuli, responses, and consequences build and alter overt behavior… learning results from the automatic, unthinking, formation or modification of associations between observable events.” All behavior is observable, everything is observable to behaviorists. Traditional behaviorists pay almost little or no attention to the role unconscious mental activity associated with learning. Cognitive Approach to learning: Cognitive psychologists accept Classical and Operant conditioning but say there are mental processes going on that- help us understand causality… conditioning adds to how we represent, store, and use information. They cite the concept of expectancy as evidence of mental processes… example an expected or unexpected stimulus impacts the response- this is a mental process. Basically we think about our expectations… Also we ascribe meaning o experiences and this is a cognitive process… example we have expectations about the stimuli. We also make judgments about meaning and that relates to how reinforcement might be more rewarding…

55. Cognition= Rescorla Researcher Researcher Demonstrated predictability of associations = conditioning = expectancy Demonstrated predictability of associations = conditioning = expectancy All of this relates to All of this relates to

56. Extension Emotion and Learning Problem Focused Coping Problem Focused Coping Emotion Focused Coping Emotion Focused Coping Learned Helplessness Learned Helplessness Internal Locus of Control Internal Locus of Control External Locus of Control External Locus of Control Intrinsic Motivation Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic Motivation Extrinsic Motivation

57. Latent Learning Latent Learning (Tolman study rats and a maze)= learning that is not evident when it first occurs. (driving a car) Cognitive Maps (Tolman study rats)= mental representation of how the maze was arranged, developed naturally, without reinforcement based on experience. Insight- Sudden realization of a problem’s solution. (cognition)

58. Bandura Observational Learning Vicarious Conditioning Vicarious Conditioning