1. Dimensions of Culture

2. Classifying Cultures
Cultural differences can be studied, described, classified, and compared in a variety of ways.
One is to look at the institutions that societies have created; another is to observe and compare behavior; and the most common approach is to ask people what they think.

3. High-Context and Low-Context
Characteristic
Low Context
High Context
Communication and Language
Explicit, direct
Implicit, indirect
Sense of Self and Space
Informal handshakes
Formal hugs, bows, and handshakes
Dress and appearance
Dress for individual success, wide variety
Indication of position in society, religious rule
Food and eating habits
Eating is a necessity, fast food
Eating is a social event
Time consciousness
Linear, exact, promptness is valued, time = money
Elastic, relative, time spent on enjoyment, time = relationships

4. High-Context and Low-Context
Characteristic
Low Context
High Context
Family and friends
Nuclear family, self-oriented, value youth
Extended family, other-oriented, loyalty and responsibility, respect for old age
Values and norms
Independence, confrontation and conflict
Group conformity, harmony
Beliefs and attitudes
Egalitarian, challenge authority, individuals control destiny, gender equality
Hierarchical, respect for authority, individuals accept destiny, gender roles

5. High-Context and Low-Context
Characteristic
Low Context
High Context
cognitive style
Linear, logical, sequential, problem-solving
Lateral, holistic, simultaneous, accepting life’s difficulties
Work habits
Task-oriented rewards are based on achievement, work has value
Relationship-oriented, rewards based on seniority, work is a necessity

6. Dimensions of Time
Time is more than what the clock reads. Different cultures have different concepts of time. Western advertisers tend to use clocks in their international advertising to symbolize efficiency.
Time is a core system of cultural, social, and personal life.
Hall distinguishes different types of time: biological time (light-dark/day-night, hot/cold); personal time (how time is experienced); and sync time (each culture has its own beat).

7. Closure
For Americans, closure means that a task must be completed or it is perceived as “wasted.” That is why American novels or films generally have “happy endings,” including solutions to problems.

8. Time Orientation toward the Past, Present, or Future
North Americans tend to be future oriented; the future is a guide to present action, although the time horizon is short-term. The old is easily discarded, and the new embraced.
The Chinese tend to combine both the past and the future in one holistic view of life, including reverence for their forefathers and long-term responsibility for future generations.

9. Time is Linear or Circular
Time can be conceived as a line of sequential events or as cyclical and repetitive, compressing past, present, and future by what these have in common: seasons and rhythms.
The linear time concept causes people to see time as compartmentalized, schedule dominated.

10. Monochronic and Polychronic Time
People from monochronic cultures tend to do one thing at one time; they are organized, methodical, and their workdays are structured to allow them to complete one task after another. They tend to do many things simultaneously.

11. Cause and Effect
Time also relates to the concept of cause and effect used to explain a sequence of events.

12. Relationship of Man with Nature
There are basically three types of relationships between humanity and nature:
mastery over nature;
harmony with nature; and
subjugation to nature

13. Hofstede’s Five Dimensions of National Culture
Power Distance
Individualism / Collectivism
Masculinity / Femininity
Uncertainty Avoidance
Long- / Short-Term Orientation

14. Power Distance
The extent to which less powerful members of a society accept and expect that power is distributed unequally.
In large / high power distance cultures, everyone has his or her rightful place in a social hierarchy; one’s social status must be clear so that others can show proper respect; people are well-groomed, in particular when going out in the streets as your position in the social hierarchy is defined by the clothes you wear, your shoes, your posture, and your makeup.

15. Power Distance (cont’d)
In large power distance cultures, there are strong dependency relationships between parents and children, bosses and subordinates, professors and students.
In small / low power distance cultures, children are raised to be independent at a young age; parents play with their children as equals.
Lego did not sell well in France as it did in Denmark.

16. Individualism / Collectivism
People looking after themselves and their immediate family only, versus people belonging to in-groups that look after them in exchange for loyalty.

17. Masculinity / Femininity
Masculinity – the dominant values in a masculine society are achievement and success; the bigger, the better; admires the strong
Feminine – the dominant values are caring for others and quality of life; small is beautiful; togetherness and coziness; sympathy for the underdog

18. Uncertainty Avoidance
The extent to which people feel threatened by uncertainty and ambiguity and try to avoid these situations.

19. Long Term vs Short Term Orientation
Long-term orientation is the extent to which a society exhibits a pragmatic future-oriented perspective rather than a conventional historic or short-term point of view.