1. Society and Economy Under the Old Regime in the Eighteenth Century Chapter 15 The Western Heritage

2. The Old Regime ancien régime : patterns of social, political, and economic relationships in pre-revolutionary France prior to 1789; broadly ancien régime : patterns of social, political, and economic relationships in pre-revolutionary France prior to 1789; broadly hierarchical society—most striking feature of Old Regime:hierarchical society—most striking feature of Old Regime: aristocratic elites w/inherited legal privilegesaristocratic elites w/inherited legal privileges established churches closely tied to the state and aristocracy—collected “tithes” (tax) while being exempt themselvesestablished churches closely tied to the state and aristocracy—collected “tithes” (tax) while being exempt themselves urban labor force—organized into guildsurban labor force—organized into guilds rural peasantry subject to high taxes and feudal duesrural peasantry subject to high taxes and feudal dues little concept of “individual rights”—only group rightslittle concept of “individual rights”—only group rights

3. 18th c “Age of Aristocracy” 1–5 % of population1–5 % of population most social, political, economic powermost social, political, economic power wealth based on landwealth based on land manual labor considered beneath themmanual labor considered beneath them interest in economic growth, innovation (like commercial classes)interest in economic growth, innovation (like commercial classes)

4. The Aristocracy (Britain) British nobility—smallest, wealthiest, best defined, most socially responsibleBritish nobility—smallest, wealthiest, best defined, most socially responsible about 400 families, eldest males in House of Lordsabout 400 families, eldest males in House of Lords owned about ¼ arable landowned about ¼ arable land few significant legal privileges—great political powerfew significant legal privileges—great political power French nobility—less clear-cut; about 400,000 noblesFrench nobility—less clear-cut; about 400,000 nobles “nobles of the sword”—nobility from military service “nobles of the sword”—nobility from military service “nobles of the robe”—from service in bureaucracy, or purchased “nobles of the robe”—from service in bureaucracy, or purchased some wealthy, some poor, but all shared certain hereditary privilegessome wealthy, some poor, but all shared certain hereditary privileges Eastern European nobilities—military traditions important; extensive repressive power over serfsEastern European nobilities—military traditions important; extensive repressive power over serfs

5. An Aristocratic Couple by Gainsborough

6. Aristocratic Resurgence Europe-wide reaction to threat from expanding power of monarchiesEurope-wide reaction to threat from expanding power of monarchies tried to preserve privileges by making nobility harder to attaintried to preserve privileges by making nobility harder to attain pushed to reserve high-ranking military/government/church appointments for noblespushed to reserve high-ranking military/government/church appointments for nobles sought to leverage existing noble-controlled institutions (British Parliament, French parlements, German provincial diets, etc.)sought to leverage existing noble-controlled institutions (British Parliament, French parlements, German provincial diets, etc.) tried to shore up wealth through new tax exemptions, raising rentstried to shore up wealth through new tax exemptions, raising rents

7. Peasants & Serfs lives of economic and social dependency, exploitation, vulnerabilitylives of economic and social dependency, exploitation, vulnerability power of European landlords increased from west to eastpower of European landlords increased from west to east French peasants: banalitiés (feudal dues); corveé (annual forced labor)French peasants: banalitiés (feudal dues); corveé (annual forced labor) Habsburg serfs: near-slavery; robot (compulsory service to lord)Habsburg serfs: near-slavery; robot (compulsory service to lord) Russian serfs: worst off; noble wealth measured by number of serfs, not acresRussian serfs: worst off; noble wealth measured by number of serfs, not acres Ottoman Empire (SE Europe): peasants nominally free; marginally empowered by scarcity of laborOttoman Empire (SE Europe): peasants nominally free; marginally empowered by scarcity of labor

9. Peasant Rebellions Russia: Pugachev’s Rebellion (1773–1775)—all of southern Russia; eventually crushed; largest 18th c. uprisingRussia: Pugachev’s Rebellion (1773–1775)—all of southern Russia; eventually crushed; largest 18th c. uprising Eastern Europe: smaller revolts in Bohemia, Transylvania, Moravia, AustriaEastern Europe: smaller revolts in Bohemia, Transylvania, Moravia, Austria Western Europe: almost no revolts, but rural riots in England; usually attempts to assert traditional rights against innovationsWestern Europe: almost no revolts, but rural riots in England; usually attempts to assert traditional rights against innovations Pugachev

10. English Game Laws 1671–1831: English landowners—exclusive legal right to hunt game1671–1831: English landowners—exclusive legal right to hunt game upheld superior status of aristocracy (over peasants) and landed gentry (over commercial classes)upheld superior status of aristocracy (over peasants) and landed gentry (over commercial classes) gentry hired gamekeepers to guard against poachers; killing deer by unauthorized persons became capital crimegentry hired gamekeepers to guard against poachers; killing deer by unauthorized persons became capital crime poaching nonetheless popular—source of food for the hungrypoaching nonetheless popular—source of food for the hungry black market driven by urban demand for luxury meatblack market driven by urban demand for luxury meat 1831: laws rewritten to permit landowners to allow others to hunt1831: laws rewritten to permit landowners to allow others to hunt

11. Family Structure family economy: family was basic unit of production and consumption in pre-industrial Europefamily economy: family was basic unit of production and consumption in pre-industrial Europe Northwestern European households:Northwestern European households: nuclear family—married couple, children through early teens, servants; approx. 5–6 members averagenuclear family—married couple, children through early teens, servants; approx. 5–6 members average married late—average age 26 (men), 23 (women)married late—average age 26 (men), 23 (women) servants—young people working in exchange for room, board, wages; not necessarily socially inferior to employers; normally ate with familyservants—young people working in exchange for room, board, wages; not necessarily socially inferior to employers; normally ate with family

12. The Iron Forge by Joseph Wright

13. Family Structure (cont.) Eastern European householdsEastern European households marriage usually before 20, often arrangedmarriage usually before 20, often arranged extended family—3-4 generations, 9-20 members or more in rural Russiaextended family—3-4 generations, 9-20 members or more in rural Russia aided by landlord’s need for laboraided by landlord’s need for labor

14. Family Economy living alone almost impossible & viewed w/ suspicionliving alone almost impossible & viewed w/ suspicion all household members worked; work products went to family, not individualall household members worked; work products went to family, not individual farming major occupation, but rarely adequate—one or more family members might work elsewhere and send wages homefarming major occupation, but rarely adequate—one or more family members might work elsewhere and send wages home skilled artisans—father chief artisan, wife often sold the wares, children learned the tradeskilled artisans—father chief artisan, wife often sold the wares, children learned the trade Western Europe: death of the father often meant disaster; high mortality rate meant high personal and economic vulnerabilityWestern Europe: death of the father often meant disaster; high mortality rate meant high personal and economic vulnerability

15. Women and the Family Economy women’s lives largely determined by her ability to establish and maintain a householdwomen’s lives largely determined by her ability to establish and maintain a household marriage an economic necessitymarriage an economic necessity dominant concern was adequate food supply; necessity of limiting number of children—birth controldominant concern was adequate food supply; necessity of limiting number of children—birth control

16. The Washerwoman

17. Children and the Family Economy 18th c. childbirth dangerous for both mother and child18th c. childbirth dangerous for both mother and child wet nursing industry—well-developed, necessary because full-time motherhood usually impossiblewet nursing industry—well-developed, necessary because full-time motherhood usually impossible birth of a child often meant increased economic hardship; some infanticidebirth of a child often meant increased economic hardship; some infanticide “foundling hospitals” established for abandoned children, usually victims of poverty or illegitimacy“foundling hospitals” established for abandoned children, usually victims of poverty or illegitimacy

18. Agricultural Revolution main goal of traditional peasant society— stable food supplymain goal of traditional peasant society— stable food supply resisted changes that might endanger food supplyresisted changes that might endanger food supply vulnerability to poor harvests, fluctuations in price of grain (bread)vulnerability to poor harvests, fluctuations in price of grain (bread) slow rise in grain prices through 18th c. triggers series of innovations in farm production: Agricultural Revolutionslow rise in grain prices through 18th c. triggers series of innovations in farm production: Agricultural Revolution peasants often resisted and were brutally repressedpeasants often resisted and were brutally repressed

19. Agricultural Innovations Dutch, 16th & 17th c.—better ways to drain land; new crops (clover, turnips) for animal fodder & soil restorationDutch, 16th & 17th c.—better ways to drain land; new crops (clover, turnips) for animal fodder & soil restoration English, 18th c. popularized of earlier innovationsEnglish, 18th c. popularized of earlier innovations Jethro Tull— invented seed drill—saved 80% of seedJethro Tull— invented seed drill—saved 80% of seed Charles “Turnip” Townsend—instituted crop rotationCharles “Turnip” Townsend—instituted crop rotation Robert Bakewell—improved methods of animal breedingRobert Bakewell—improved methods of animal breeding enclosure: replaced open-field method; created large tracts of farmland out of small plots, common land, and waste areasenclosure: replaced open-field method; created large tracts of farmland out of small plots, common land, and waste areas Result: more productive land useResult: more productive land use turmoil for peasant farmers;turmoil for peasant farmers; commercialization of agriculturecommercialization of agriculture improvements more limited in the Eastimprovements more limited in the East

20. Jethro Tull’s Seed Drill

21. Population Increases approximate population of non- Ottoman Europe:approximate population of non- Ottoman Europe: 1700: 100–200 million1700: 100–200 million 1800: 190 million1800: 190 million 1850: 260 million1850: 260 million put pressure on food prices, driving agricultural innovation and spurring the Industrial Revolutionput pressure on food prices, driving agricultural innovation and spurring the Industrial Revolution

22. Population Increases: Causes 1)clear decline in death rate 2)fewer epidemics b/c better hygiene & sanitation 3)Changes in food supply—improved, expanding grain production— cultivation of potato This more certain food supply enabled more children to survive to adulthood and rear children of their own. This more certain food supply enabled more children to survive to adulthood and rear children of their own.

23. Population Increases: Results 1)New demands for food, jobs, & services 2)New pool of labor 3)Traditional modes of production & living had to be revised 4)People migrate to find jobs. 5)Social and political discontent grow as pressures and demands continue to increase.

24. 19th c. Industrial Revolution 2nd half of 1800s: beginning of industrialization2nd half of 1800s: beginning of industrialization introduced virtually uninterrupted economic growthintroduced virtually uninterrupted economic growth made possible the greatest production of goods and services in historymade possible the greatest production of goods and services in history carried a high social cost, though eventually did away with rampant povertycarried a high social cost, though eventually did away with rampant poverty

25. Results of Industrialization 1)afforded humans greater control over the forces of nature 2)helped upset the political structure of the Old Regime 3)raised the standard of living and generally overcame poverty

26. Consumer Revolution production of new goods driven by increases in demand (learning to want things)production of new goods driven by increases in demand (learning to want things) factors:factors: growth in disposable income (causes uncertain)growth in disposable income (causes uncertain) new methods of entrepreneurial marketingnew methods of entrepreneurial marketing development of fashion industrydevelopment of fashion industry consumer economy became permanent feature of European economy, despite conflicts with Christian ethicsconsumer economy became permanent feature of European economy, despite conflicts with Christian ethics

28. Industrialism in Great Britain GB: industrial leader of Europe through mid- 19th c.GB: industrial leader of Europe through mid- 19th c. factors:factors: London: largest city in Europe, center of fashionLondon: largest city in Europe, center of fashion prominence of newspapers (advertising)prominence of newspapers (advertising) largest free-trade area in Europelargest free-trade area in Europe rich in coal & iron orerich in coal & iron ore stable political structure, secure property, sound financial systemstable political structure, secure property, sound financial system comparatively high social mobilitycomparatively high social mobility Taxation heavy, but efficient and fairTaxation heavy, but efficient and fair

29. Textile Production earliest industrial change took place in countryside, not citiesearliest industrial change took place in countryside, not cities domestic or putting-out system of textile production (family economy): urban textile merchants send wool and other fibers to homes of peasants who spun thread and wove cloth domestic or putting-out system of textile production (family economy): urban textile merchants send wool and other fibers to homes of peasants who spun thread and wove cloth growing demand causes production bottlenecks:growing demand causes production bottlenecks: spinning jenny, c. 1765 (James Hargreaves)—multiple spindles of thread spun on one machine; broke bottleneck between spinners & weavers spinning jenny, c. 1765 (James Hargreaves)—multiple spindles of thread spun on one machine; broke bottleneck between spinners & weavers water frame, 1769 (Richard Arkwright)—water-powered device that produced purely cotton fabric, rather than cotton and linen-cotton output increased 800%, 1780–1900 water frame, 1769 (Richard Arkwright)—water-powered device that produced purely cotton fabric, rather than cotton and linen-cotton output increased 800%, 1780–1900

30. James Hargreaves’ spinning jenny

31. Steam Engine James Watt, 1769—Scottish engineer and machine makerJames Watt, 1769—Scottish engineer and machine maker provided for the first time in history a steady and virtually unlimited source of inanimate powerprovided for the first time in history a steady and virtually unlimited source of inanimate power portable source of power not dependent on natureportable source of power not dependent on nature myriad industrial applicationsmyriad industrial applications

32. Iron Production chief element of all heavy industry and land or sea transportchief element of all heavy industry and land or sea transport production limitations, early 18th c.:production limitations, early 18th c.: charcoal rather than coke used to smelt orecharcoal rather than coke used to smelt ore before steam engine, furnaces couldn’t achieve high enough blastsbefore steam engine, furnaces couldn’t achieve high enough blasts limited demandlimited demand elimination of first two problems eliminated the thirdelimination of first two problems eliminated the third

33. Impact on Working Women displaced many of women’s traditional economic roles in agriculture and textile manufacture as men took over heavy and skilled tasks and pushed women outdisplaced many of women’s traditional economic roles in agriculture and textile manufacture as men took over heavy and skilled tasks and pushed women out women increasingly associated with work in the home rather than outside the homewomen increasingly associated with work in the home rather than outside the home men’s pay began outstripping women’smen’s pay began outstripping women’s

35. Growth of Cities 1500: 156 cities with more than 10,000 people; 4 with more than 100,0001500: 156 cities with more than 10,000 people; 4 with more than 100,000 1800: 363 with more than 10,000; 17 with more than 100,0001800: 363 with more than 10,000; 17 with more than 100,000 greatest growth among capitals and ports, due to monarchical state-building and expansion of overseas tradegreatest growth among capitals and ports, due to monarchical state-building and expansion of overseas trade

36. Urban Classes urban rich segregated from poorurban rich segregated from poor modern sanitation unknown, almost no pure water, farm animals roaming the streetsmodern sanitation unknown, almost no pure water, farm animals roaming the streets Upper Class : nobles, large merchants, bankers, financiers, clergy, government officials Upper Class : nobles, large merchants, bankers, financiers, clergy, government officials the small oligarchy that ran the citythe small oligarchy that ran the city Middle Class (bourgeoisie): merchants, trades people, bankers, professionals; diverse and divided; normally supported reform, change, economic growth; feared poor, envied nobility Middle Class (bourgeoisie): merchants, trades people, bankers, professionals; diverse and divided; normally supported reform, change, economic growth; feared poor, envied nobility Artisans : grocers, butchers, fishmongers, carpenters, cabinetmakers, smiths, printers, tailors, etc.—largest group in any citylike peasants, were in many ways conservative; economically vulnerable; guilds still important Artisans : grocers, butchers, fishmongers, carpenters, cabinetmakers, smiths, printers, tailors, etc.—largest group in any citylike peasants, were in many ways conservative; economically vulnerable; guilds still important

38. Urban Riots outlet for artisans’ displeasure, often over price of breadoutlet for artisans’ displeasure, often over price of bread bread riots: leaders confiscate bread or grain and sell it for “just price,” with money returned to proprietorsbread riots: leaders confiscate bread or grain and sell it for “just price,” with money returned to proprietors danger of bread riots restrained merchants’ greeddanger of bread riots restrained merchants’ greed highly ritualized social feature of Old Regime economy of scarcityhighly ritualized social feature of Old Regime economy of scarcity other riots: religiousother riots: religious riots became increasingly political toward end of 18c; often became a tool of upper classes—use “the crowd” against the monarchy, or against minoritiesriots became increasingly political toward end of 18c; often became a tool of upper classes—use “the crowd” against the monarchy, or against minorities

39. The Jewish Population most Jews lived in Eastern Europemost Jews lived in Eastern Europe commonly regarded as a kind of nonresident alien, usually denied citizenship privileges unless specifically grantedcommonly regarded as a kind of nonresident alien, usually denied citizenship privileges unless specifically granted lived everywhere in separate communities from non-Jews: ghettos in the city or primarily Jewish villages in countrysidelived everywhere in separate communities from non-Jews: ghettos in the city or primarily Jewish villages in countryside “the age of the ghetto”—did not mix with mainstream societies“the age of the ghetto”—did not mix with mainstream societies a few became famous for helping rulers finance wars, but most lived in povertya few became famous for helping rulers finance wars, but most lived in poverty

40. Jewish ghetto in Kraków, Poland