1. TOEFL: Structure and Written Expression

2. General Strategies Be familiar with the directions.
Begin with questions 1-15 (Structure). Questions 1-5 are easier and are harder.
Continue with questions (Written Expression). Questions are easier and are harder.
Do not take too much time with each item. If you have time left you can go back and check and
Do not leave any blank answers on the answer sheet.

3. Strategies for Structure Questions
First, study the sentence.
Then study each answer choice based on how well it completes the sentence.
Do not try to eliminate incorrect options by looking only at the answers.
Be aware that in this section most of the items will require you to identify the subject or the verb (or both) in the correct order of subject + verb (except on items with inverted structure).
Do not spend too much time on this section. Leave enough time for the Written Expression Section.

4. Characteristics of a Sentence
A sentence can be formed by one or more clauses.
Clauses can be independent and dependent/subordinate clauses. All sentences must have subject and verb.
Sentences can be: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex.
A simple sentence is formed by only one independent clause.
I went to the movies yesterday afternoon.
Independent clause

5. A compound sentence is formed by two or more independent clauses connected by coordinate conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so: FANBOYS).
I went to the movies last night, and I had a great time.
Independent clause conjunction + Ind. clause
A complex sentence is formed by one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.
I went to the movies after I had finished my homework.
Independent Clause connector + Dependent Clause

6. A compound-complex sentence is formed by more than one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.
I went to the movies, and I had a great time because the movie Indep. Clause conj Indep. Clause connector + Dep. Cl.
was terrific.

7. Characteristics of a Clause
Every clause must have a subject and a verb. A complement is optional.
There are two types of clauses: independent and dependent (or subordinated).
Independent clauses have a complete idea and can stand alone in a sentence.
Dependent clauses complement the independent clause, but do not have a complete idea and cannot stand alone in a sentence.

8. There are three types of dependent clauses:
Noun clauses: function as a noun, so they can be subjects, objects of a verb, or objects of a preposition.
I understand how you feel.
Adjective clauses: function as an adjective and describe a noun or pronoun from the main clause.
I know the man who works in that office.
Adverb clauses: function as an adverb and give additional information about the verb (how, when, where, and why)
I know that man because he works with my father.
Note: We will see these in more detail in the skills.

9. Skills 1-5 Simple Sentences: one subject + one verb
SKILL 1: BE SURE THE SENTENCE HAS A SUBJECT AND A VERB:
Engineers are needed for work.
S V
The boy will be going to the movies.
S V
SKILL 2: BE CAREFUL OF OBJECTS OF PREPOSITIONS:
In the past a woman in politics wasn´t common.
OP S OP V
For the fever he took aspirine tablets.
OP S V

10. An appositive is a noun or noun phrase which describes
SKILL 3: BE CAREFUL OF APPOSITIVES
An appositive is a noun or noun phrase which describes
another noun or pronoun. It is normally set off by commas.
Tom, a good mechanic, is fixing a car.
S APP V
A good mechanic, Tom is fixing a car.
APP S V
A good mechanic, Tom, is fixing a car.
S APP V

11. IT AND THERE
Strategy
Some sentences or clauses begin with it or there. Be aware of the constructions that follow these subjects. In the Structure section, parts of a sentence including it and there may be omitted.
A sentence or clause may begin with the words it or there.
1) It is used in three ways:
It is used as subject followed by the verb to be:
It was in 1761 that she came to Boston. (It + to be + that)
It is used as subject when the information is related to an adjective:
It was important to be free. (It + to be + adjective + infinitive)
It is used as a subject when it is used with a time phrase:
It took her a few years to learn English. (It + take + time phrase + infinitive)

12. There are many books about Phyllis Wheatley today.
2) There shows that something or someone exists at a special time or place. In this use, the word there follows this construction:
there + to be + subject
There are many books about Phyllis Wheatley today.
There was a big storm yesterday.
In these clauses the verb “to be” and the subject must agree on person.
“Expletive”:
Function: noun 1 a : a syllable, word, or phrase inserted to fill a vacancy (as in a sentence or a metrical line) without adding to the sense; especially : a word (as it in "make it clear which you prefer") that occupies the position of the subject or object of a verb in normal English word order and anticipates a subsequent word or phrase that supplies the needed meaningful content.
Source: Merriam Webster Online Dictionary:

13. SKILL 4: BE CAREFUL OF PRESENT PARTICIPLES (Adjectives):
Do not confuse them with present progressive:
The boy is standing in the corner.
S V
The boy standing in the corner looks suspicious.
S Adjective V
The present participle works as an adjective:
Tip: If it does not have a form of be, it is not a verb.

14. Do not confuse them with the following:
SKILL 5: BE CAREFUL OF PAST PARTICIPLES
Do not confuse them with the following:
Simple past: She painted the picture.
Present/Past Perfect: She has/had painted the picture.
Passive Voice: The picture was painted by Karen.
The past participle works as an adjective:
The picture painted looks wonderful.
S Adjective V
Tip: If it does not have a form of be or have, it is not a verb.

15. Skills 6-8: Sentences with Multiple clauses:
1) Compound sentences: A compound sentence is a
sentence with two or more main or independent clauses that
can be connected with coordinating conjuctions: (acronym:
FANBOYS):
for and nor but or yet so
These sentences normally have a comma before the conjunction/connector.

16. Ana laughed, but she wanted to cry.
s v con. s v
The TOEFL exam will be difficult, so we must study hard.
s v con. s v
The weather was great, and the sun was shining.
s v con s v

17. 2) Complex Sentences: A complex sentence is one that has a main or independent clause and a subordinated clause.
Adverb Clauses: These clauses give information about the verb in the independent clause:
Time: Cause
after because
as since
as long as now that
before inasmuch as
as soon as
when
while
since
until
etc.

18. Condition Contrast Manner Place
If although as where
In case even though in that wherever
provided though
providing while
unless whereas
whether

19. Teresita went inside because it was raining.
Subject verb con Subj. verb
I am going to go to the movies as soon as I finish my TOEFL
Sub. verb con Subj. verb
exercises.
Although there is a lot of information to learn for the TOEFL
Con Subj. verb
exam, you can get the 600 points if you work hard.
Subj. Verb con. Subj. verb

20. SKILLS 9-12: Noun and Adjective Clauses
Noun clauses: They are the second type of subordinated clauses. They work as nouns, so they can be subjects, objects of a verb, or objects of a preposition.
Noun clauses as any other clause have the normal order of
Subject + Verb. Noun clauses you have used before:
Indirect/embedded/polite questions:
Where is the bank?
Could you tell me where the bank is?
Does he work here?
Do you know if he works here?
Noun clauses answer the question “What…?” and can be substituted by “it”.

21. SKILL 9: USE NOUN CLAUSE CONNECTORS CORRECTLY
Noun connectors: what, when, where, why, how, whatever, whenever, whether, if, that.
As object of the verb: What do you know?
I know what you did.
S V con. S V
As object of a preposition: What are you concerned about?
I am concerned about when he will arrive.
S V Prep. C S V
As subject of the sentence: What is not important?
Con. S V
When he will arrive is not important.
Subject V

22. SKILL 10: USE NOUN CLAUSE CONNECTOR/SUBJECTS CORRECTLY
Who, whoever, what, whatever, which, whichever: Can be
connectors and subjects of the clause at the same time.
1. As object of the verb: What do you know?
I know what happened.
S V C/S V
2. As subject of the sentence: What was great?
What happened was great
C /S V V
3. As subject of all the sentence: What was wrong?
C S V
What you did was wrong
Subject Verb

23. Adjective clauses: These are the third type of dependent or subordinate clause. They have the same function as an adjective: describe a noun (person, place, thing).
This is the book which I bought yesterday.
Describes the book.
The man who is standing over there helped me.
Describes the man
Adjective clauses, like all other clauses, need to have at least a subject and a verb.
Adjective clauses go immediately after the noun they are describing, so they can appear in the middle or end of the sentence.

24. Adjective connectors: Who (people), whom (people/object and after prepositions), which (things), that (people or things, but cannot be used after prepositions or when the adjective clause is between commas), where (places), whose (possessive).
I liked the book which you recommended.
S V C S V
The man who you recommended was hired yesterday.
S C S V V
Who (people), which (things) that (people or things): Can be connector and subject of the clause at the same time.
She needs a secretary who can type fast
S V C/S V
A secretary who can type fast is invaluable
S C/S V V

25. Skills 13-14: Reduced Clauses
1) Adjective Clauses: Only adjective clauses where the connector works as subject of the clause can be reduced.
Clauses with a ‘be’ form: Omit the connector and the form of ‘be’:
The girl (that is) sitting over there is my sister.
The car (which was) bought by my father is a racing car.
The house (that is) on sale is very old.
Clauses with no form of ‘be’: Omit the connector and change the main verb to ‘-ing’ form.
I don’t understand the article (which appears) in today’s paper.
I don’t understand the article appearing in today’s paper.

26. Adjective Clauses separated by commas
If the original adjective clause was separated by commas the reduced clause keeps the commas:
The homework, which was given by the math teacher, is due tomorrow.
The homework, given by the math teacher, is due tomorrow.
We can also change the position of the adjective clause and put it at the beginning of the sentence.
The president, (who is) now preparing to give a speech, is meeting with his advisors.
Now preparing to give a speech, the president is meeting with his advisors.

27. 2) Adverb Clauses: Only adverb clauses that have the same
subject as the main clause can be reduced.
Clauses with a form of ‘be’ : Keep the connector and omit the subject and the form of ‘be’ of the adverb clause.
Although he is rather unwell, the speaker will take part in the seminar.
Although rather unwell, the speaker will take part in the seminar.
Clauses with no form of ‘be’:
Keep the connector, omit the subject and change the main verb to ‘-ing’ form.
Although he feels rather sick, the speaker will take part in the seminar.
Although feeling rather sick, the speaker will take part in the seminar.

28. Some adverb clauses can only be reduced if they are in passive
voice. For example, with adverb clauses with “once” can only be
reduced if the verb is in passive voice:
Cannot be reduced:
Once you arrive, you can start the exam.
Can be reduced:
Once the exercises are answered, they are checked by the teacher.
Once answered, the exercises are checked by the teacher.
Adverb clauses of cause cannot be reduced:
as, because, inasmuch as, now that, since

29. Skills 15-19: Subject and verb inverted
1) In questions the normal order of subject and verb/aux. is inverted:
Yes/No questions:
With verb “to be” Are you a teacher?
V S
With other verbs: Did you go to the beach?
Aux. S V
Information questions:
With verb “to be” Where are you?
QW V S
With other verbs: What did you do?
QW A S V

30. 2) Subject and Verb inverted after place expressions: When we have place words or expressions at the beginning of a clause we have to invert the normal order of subject + verb.
With verb “to be”: Here is the book you lent me.
V S
Around the corner is Sam’s house.
V S
With other verbs:
Nowhere have I seen such beautiful weather.
A S V
In the closet are the clothes that you need.
V S

31. Necessary: In the forest are many exotic birds. V S
The inversion of subject + verb with place expressions is only necessary when the expression is essential to complete the sentence.
Necessary: In the forest are many exotic birds.
V S
Not necessary: In the forest, I walked for many hours.
S V
3) Invert subject + verb with negatives or almost negative words: The subject and verb are also inverted after certain negatives and related expressions: no, not, never, neither, nor, barely, hardly, only, rarely, scarcely, seldom
With verb “to be”: Rarely were they so happy.
V S
With other verbs: Not only did he pass, he got a 100.
A S V

32. 4) Invert the subject with conditionals (Implied Conditionals)
4) Invert the subject with conditionals (Implied Conditionals). In certain conditional structures, the subject and the verb may also be inverted.
When the conditional clause has: Had, should or were
Should + S + V base form: (First Conditional)
If I should finish early, I’ll help you.
Should I finish early, I’ll help you.
Were + S: (Second Conditional)
If he were here, he would help.
Were he here, he would help.
Had + S + V base form: (Third Conditional)
If you had studied more, you would’ve passed.
Had you studied more, you would’ve passed.

33. 5) The inversion with comparatives is optional and it can be used in formal writing.
All of these forms are correct:
My sister spends more hours in the office than John.
My sister spends more hours in the office than John does.
INVERSION: COMPARATIVE + Aux/V + S
My sister spends more hours in the office than does John.
We were more prepared than the other performers.
We were more prepared than the other performers were.
We were more prepared than were the other performers.

34. General Strategies for Written Expression
First, look at the underlined word or groups of words to see if you can identify an incorrect form or structure.
Then, read all the sentence to verify the correct form and structure of the four answer choices. Some underlined options are incorrect because of something in another part of the sentence.
Never leave any answers blank.

35. Skills 20-23 Subject-Verb Agreement
1) Be careful with: prepositional phrases
If the subject is singular the verb is singular:
The key to the doors IS in the drawer.
Ob.Prep.
If the Subject is plural the verb is plural:
The keys to the doors ARE in the drawer. .

36. 2) Make verbs agree after expressions of quantity: all/most/some/half of the.
Singular count noun: All of the book was interesting
Plural count noun All of the books were interesting
Non-count nouns All of the information was interesting.
3) When we have structures where we have to invert the normal order of subject + verb we have to be careful to make the verb agree with the subject. Remember this inversion is applied in questions, after expressions of place, after negative or almost negative words, in conditional clauses without “if”, and after comparisons. After these structures the order is:
With verb “to be”: verb + subject
With other verbs: aux. + subject + verb

37. Never is she late to class.
Should Mary eat candy, she must brush her teeth.
In the first drawer is the book you are looking for.
How many times have your parents warned you to be careful?
4) After indefinite pronouns: everybody, nothing, somewhere, etc., the verb or auxiliary are used in singular form:
Everybody was ready for the exam.
Does someone know the answer?

38. Skills 24-26: Parallel Structure
Parallel Structure means to make the language as even and balanced as possible.
Example:
(not balanced: wrong) I like to sing and dancing.
(balanced, correct) I like to sing and dance. or
I like singing and dancing.

39. He is not only an excellent student but also a great athlete.
1) Parallel Structure with coordinate conjuctions: and, but, and or.
They are not interested in what you say or what you do.
clause clause
You can decide whether to go hiking or kayaking
gerund gerund
I like to go home early, but my friends prefer to stay late.
Independent clause Independent clause
2) With paired Conjuctions
both…and: I know both where you went and what you did.
either…or: The report you are looking for could be either in the file or on the desk.
neither…nor: The tickets are neither in my pocket nor in my purse.
Not only…. but also
He is not only an excellent student but also a great athlete.

40. Parallel structures with comparisons
more…..than less….than -er….. than
as….as the same as similar to
My school is farther than yours.
To be rich is better than not to be.
What is spoken is more easily understood than what is written.
Their car is as big as yours.
This book costs about the same as the other book.
The work that I did is similiar to yours.
English is less difficult than Spanish.
Some helpful hints on how to revise sentences for parallel structure: *
1) Figure out what parts of the sentence are being compared.
2) Decide whether they are parallel, i.e. arranged or constructed in the same way.
3) If they are not, make them parallel by making the grammatical construction the same in each part.
* Source:

41. Skill 27-29: Form Comparatives and Superlatives Correctly
Comparative: We compare two persons or things.
1) Add –er to one syllable words: harder, darker, faster.
2) Double the consonant and add –er to one syllable words with v+c: bigger, hotter.
3) Change ‘y’ to ‘i’ and add –er to words with two syllables that end in ‘y’: happier, easier.
4) Use more/less before words with two or more syllables: more beautiful, more intelligent.
5) Add than after the comparative if you specify the second person or object you are comparing:
Peter is taller than Joe.

42. Superlative: We compare more than two persons or things
Superlative: We compare more than two persons or things. (add ‘the’ before the adjective)
1) Add –est to one syllable words: the hardest, the darkest, the fastest.
2) Double the consonant and add –est to one syllable words with v+c: the biggest, the hottest.
3) Change ‘y’ to ‘i’ and add –est to words with two syllables that end in ‘y’: the happiest, the easiest.
4) Use the most/least before words with two or more syllables: the most beautiful, the most intelligent.
5) We can also use the words ‘in’, ‘of’ and ‘that after the superlative forms:
You’re the most beautiful girl in the world.
Your’re the most beautiful of all the girls in the group.
You’re the most beautiful girl that I have ever seen.

43. Use Comparatives and Superlatives Correctly.
Wrong: It is the better sports car that I´ve seen.
Right: It is the best sports car that I’ve seen.
Use the Irregular –er, -er Structure Correctly: Two parrallel comparatives introduced by ‘the’:
The more you read, the more you learn.
The harder you try, the more you’ll accomplish.
Sometimes a verb is not necessary:
The greater the experience, the higher the salary.
The rules to form the comparative of adverbs are similar to adjectives except with two syllable adverbs that end in –y. The comparative is formed with more/less, the most/least: more easily.
The comparative of nouns is formed only adding: more/less, the most/least: more work, the most work.

44. Skills 30-32: Problems with the Form of the Verb
Base form: No person, tense, or number.
play work sing come
Present form: With tense, person and number.
play(s) work(s) sing(s) come(s)
Present participle: Verb + -ing. Use in prog. tenses.
playing working singing coming
Past form: Used with the Simple Past
played worked sang came
Past Participle: Used with Perfect tenses and Passive Voice.
played worked sung come

45. Always check what comes:
After any form of have: have, has, had, having we should use the past participle form of the verb:
Peter has worked a lot this week.
My parents have bought a new car.
I had finished my homework by 10 p.m.
Having finished my homework, I went out.
You should have studied a little more.
After any form of be: am, is, are, was, were, be, been, being the verb can be in:
Present participle: for progressive tenses:
I am playing. He is playing. I was playing.
We were playing. I have been playing. I had been playing.
Tip: The subject does the action.

46. 2) Past participle: for the passive voice:
I am checked by the doctor every year.
The water is bought every day.
The mail has been delivered on time.
The movie will be filmed in Mexico.
Tip: The subject receives the action.
After modals or modal like expressions use the base form of the verb: can, could, shall, should, will, would, must, ought to, be able to, be supposed to, have to, had better.
You can work with us.
He should study a lot more.
They must finish the project.
I would help you, If I had time.

47. SKILL 33: KNOW WHEN TO USE THE PAST WITH THE PRESENT
If you see a sentence with one verb in the past and one verb in the present, the sentence is probably incorrect because it doesn´t make any sense:
I tell him the truth when he asked me the question.
However, it is possible for a correct sentence to
have both past and present together and be
correct because the meaning is logical.
I understand that you were angry

48. SKILL 34: USE HAVE AND HAD CORRECTLY
TENSE
FORM
MEANING
USE
EXAMPLE
Present perfect
Have + Past Participle
Past up to now
Not with a past tense **
Sue has lived in L.A. for 10 years.
Past perfect
Had + Past Participle
Before past up to past
Not with a present tense
Sue had lived in L.A. for 10 years when she moved to San Diego
**Except when the time expression since is part of the sentence, see skill 35.

49. SKILL 35: USE THE CORRECT TENSE WITH TIME EXPRESSIONS
PAST PERFECT
SIMPLE PAST
PRESENT PERFECT
Adverb clause simple past tense: when, before, until, since, etc.
in 1990, ago, last year, yesterday,
since 1990, for… already, lately, just, yet, recently, so far, many times, ever, never, still

50. SKILL 36: USE THE CORRECT TENSE WITH WILL AND WOULD
VERB
MEANING
USE
EXAMPLE
Will
After the present
Do not use with past
I think that I will leave tomorrow
Would
After the past
Do not use with present
He knew that she would come
NOTE: When would is used to make polite requests, it is used with the present tense:
“I would like to have a cup of coffee please”.

51. SKILL 37- 38: USE THE CORRECT FORM OF THE PASSIVE
Active Voice: The subject does the action.
The man bought the books.
Subject Verb Object
Passive Voice: The subject receives the action:
The books were bought by the man.
Subject verb Agent
The passive voice is formed by:
Be (takes the tense) + Verb in past participle
Present: am/is/are bought
Pres.Prog. am/is/are being bought
Pres.Perf have/has been bought
Past was/were bought
Past Prog was/were being bought
Past Perf had been bought
Future will be bought
Future Perf. will have been bought

52. SKILL 39: USE THE CORRECT SINGULAR OR PLURAL NOUN
A singular noun is used where a plural noun is needed.
On the table there were many dish.
A plural noun is used where a singular noun is needed. The lab assistant finished every tests.
KEY WORDS FOR SINGULAR AND PLURAL NOUNS
For singular nouns
Each every single one a
For plural nouns
Both two many several various

53. Skill 40: Distinguish countable and uncountable nouns
Some common mistakes:
He has seen much* foreign films.
He didn’t have many* fun at the movies.
It should be:
He has seen many foreign films.
He didn’t have much fun at the movies.
Key words for countable and uncountable nouns
For countable nouns
many number few fewer
For uncountable nouns
much amount little less

54. Skill 41: Recognize Irregular Plurals of Nouns
Many nouns in English have irregular plurals; the irregular forms that are the most problematic are plural forms that do not end in S.
Different Criteria was* used to evaluate the performers
In this example the plural criteria looks singular because it does not end in S. However, criteria is a plural noun, so the singular verb was used is incorrect. The verb should be in the plural form were used.

55. IRREGULAR PLURALS Vowel Change Man / Men Foot / Feet Goose / Geese
Woman / Women Tooth / Teeth Mouse / Mice
Add – EN
Child / Children Ox / Oxen
Same as Singular
Deer / Deer Salmon / Salmon Trout / Trout
Fish / Fish Sheep / Sheep
-IS  -ES
Analysis / Analyses Diagnosis / Diagnoses Synthesis/Syntheses
Axis / Axes Hypothesis / Hypotheses Thesis / Theses
Crisis / Crises Parenthesis / Parentheses
Ends in –A
Bacterium / Bacteria Datum / Data Criterion / Criteria
Curriculum / Curricula Phenomenon / Phenomena
-US  -I
Alumnus / Alumni Fungus / Fungi Stimulus / Stimuli
Bacillus / Bacilli Nucleus / Nuclei Syllabus / Syllabi
Cactus / Cacti Radius / Radii

56. Skill 42: Distinguish The Person From The Thing
Nouns in English can refer to persons or things; sometimes in the written expression the person is used in place of the thing, or the thing is used in place of the person.
Ralph Nader is an authorization* in the field of consumer affairs
There are many job oppotunities in accountant*
In the first example, autorization is incorrect because authorization is a thing and Ralph Nader is a person; it should be authority.
In the second example, accountant is incorrect because accountant is a person; it should be accounting.

57. Sally gave the book to John. She gave it to him.
Skill 43: DISTINGUISH SUBJECT AND OBJECT PRONOUNS
A subject pronoun is used as the subject of the verb
An object pronoun can be used as the object of a verb or the object of a preposition
SUBJECT
OBJECT I
You He
She It We
They Me
Him
Her Us
Them
Sally gave the book to John.
She gave it to him.

58. SKILL 44: DISTINGUISH POSSESIVE ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS
Possessive adjectives and pronouns both show who or what ¨owns¨ a noun.
Adjectives and possessive pronouns do not have the same function.
A possessive adjective describes a noun, it must be accompanied by a noun
A possessive pronoun takes the place of a noun, it can’t be accompanied by a noun
They lent me their book.
They lent me theirs.

59. The following chart outlines the possessives and their uses:
ADJECTIVES
PRONOUNS My
Your
His
Her
Its
Our
Their
Mine
Yours
Hers -
Ours
Theirs
Must be accompanied by noun
Cannot be accompanied by a noun

60. Skill 45: CHECK PRONOUN REFERENCE FOR AGREEMENT
After we check that the subject and object pronouns and the
possessives are used correctly, we should also check each of
these pronouns and possessives for agreement.
The boy will cause trouble if you let him.
Everyone must give his/her* name.
PRONOUN AGREEMENT
Be sure that every pronoun and possessive agrees with the noun it refers to.
You generally check back in the sentence for agreement
*In informal speaking we can use their/them

61. SKILL 46: USE BASIC ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS CORRECTLY
Adjectives are used in place of adverbs, or adverbs are used in place of adjectives. Adjectives and adverbs have very different uses. Adjectives have only one job: they describe nouns or pronouns. Adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
She is a beautiful woman. She is beautiful.
ADJ NOUN PRO. ADJ.
She sings beautifully.
VERB ADV.
She is a beautifully dressed woman.
ADV ADJ NOUN
She is a truly beautifully dressed woman.
ADV ADV ADJ. NOUN

62. Skill 47: Use Adjectives after Linking Verbs
Generally an adverb rather than an adjective will come directly
after a verb because the adverb is describing the verb.
She spoke nicely.
VERB ADV.
This adverb (nicely) describes the verb spoke.
You must be careful if the verb is a linking verb. A linking verb
is followed by an adjective rather than an adverb. A linking verb is
a non-action (describes a state) verb that needs a complement.
Examples: She looks nice.
SUB ADJ.
LINKING VERBS: appear feel seem be look smell become prove taste

63. SKILL 48. POSITION ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS CORRECTLY
THE POSITION OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
A one-word adjective comes before the noun it describes, it does not come
directly after.
An adverb can appear in many positions. It cannot be used between a verb
and its object.
ADJECTIVES
ADVERBS
Adjectives and adverbs can appear in incorrect positions in the Written Expression Section.
The two common errors are:
- The position of adjectives with the nouns they describe.
- The position of adverbs with objects.
In English it is correct to place a one-word adjective in front of the noun it describes.
The information important is on the first page.
Here the adjective “important” should come before the noun information,
this is because important describes information.
The important information is on the first page.

64. You should be aware of the position of adverbs with objects of verbs.
when a verb has an object, an adverb describing the verb should not come
between the verb and its object.
He has taken recently an English course.
Verb Adv. Object
There are many possible corrections for this sentence.
Recently he has taken an English course
He has recently taken an English course
He has taken an English course recently.

65. SKILL 49: Do not confuse –ly Adjectives with Adverbs ending in –ly
costly likely daily quarterly northerly
early lively hourly weekly easterly
friendly lonely monthly yearly southerly
kindly manly nightly lovely westerly

66. SKILL 50: USE PREDICATE ADJECTIVES AFTER LINKING VERBS
The snake on the rock was alive. CORRECT
The alive* snake was lying on the rock. INCORRECT
In the first example, the predicate adjective alive is used correctly after the liking verb was to describe the subject snake. In the second example, the predicate adjective alive is used incorrectly in front of the noun snake. In this position, the adjective live should be used.

67. SKILL 50: USE PREDICATE ADJECTIVES CORRECTLY
Predicate adjectives Forms used in front of noun
alike
like, similar
alive
live, living
alone
lone
afraid
frightened
asleep
sleeping
A predicate adjective appears after a linking verb such as be. It cannot appear directly in front of the noun that it describes.

68. SKILL 51: USE –ED AND -ING ADJECTIVES CORRECTLY
The woman cleans the car.
VERB
The cleaning woman worked on the car.
ADJECTIVE
The woman put the cleaned car back in the garage.
In the first example, cleans is the verb of the sentence. In the second example, cleaning is a verbal adjective describing woman. In the third example, cleaned is a verbal adjective describing car.
The cleaning* car… is not correct because a car cannot do the action of cleaning. (active)
The cleaned* woman… is not correct because a woman cannot receive the action of the verb clean. (passive)

69. SKILL 51: USE –ED AND -ING ADJECTIVES CORRECTLY
TYPE
MEANING
USE
EXAMPLE
-ING
Active
It does the
action of the
verb.
… the happily playing children….
(The children play.)
-ED
Passive
It receives the action of the verb.
… the frequently played record…
(Someone plays the record.)

70. Skills: 52-54: PROBLEMS WITH ARTICLES:
Countable Singular Nouns
Contable Plural Nouns
Uncontable Nouns
Indefinite (General)
a dollar
an apple
---- dollars
---- apples
----money
----juice
Definite (Specific)
the dollar
the apple
the dollars
the apples
the money
the juice

71. SKILL 52: Use Articles with Singular
Nouns
A singular noun must have an article (a/an, the) or some other
determiner such as my or each. A plural noun or an uncountable
noun may or may not have an article.
I have money. (Uncountable--- no article needed)
I have books. (Countable plural--- no article needed)
I have a book. (Countable singular--- article needed)

72. SKILL 53: Distinguish A/An
A is used in front of a singular noun with a consonant sound. AN
AN is used in front of a singular noun with a vowel sound.
Be careful of words beginning with letters such as u, o, e, x or h. They may begin with either a vowel or a consonant sound.
A university
A hand
A one- way street
A euphemism
A xerox machine
An unhappy man
An hour
An omen
An event
An x-ray machine

73. Skill 54: Make Articles agree with Nouns
The definite article “the” is for both singular and plural nouns
The indefinite article “a/an” is used only with singular nouns.
One very common agreement error is to use the singular indefinite “a/an” with a plural noun.
He saw a new movies. (incorrect)
He saw a new movie. (singular)
He saw new movies (plural)

74. Skill 55: Distinguish Specific and General Ideas
With countable singular nouns, it is possible to use either the definite or the indefinite article. BUT THEY HAVE DIFFERENT MEANINGS.
¨A or An (versus) THE¨
A or An:
Use it when there are many, and you don´t know which one it is.
Use it when there are many, and you don´t care which one it is.
Tom will bring a book tomorow. (any book)

75. THE:
Use it when it is the only one.
Use it when there are many, and you and your listener know which one it is.
Tom will bring the book tomorow. (a specific book.)

76. Skills 56-57: Problems with Prepositions
Literal way
Idiomatic way
Means exactly
what you expect
It’s very far
from the real
meaning
Example
The boy ran up the mountain v/s I call up my friend.
Literal / Idiomatic meaning

77. Prepositions
Prepositions are not only used to show time, place, and agent, but are also used in combination with verbs, adjectives, nouns, and in many common set expressions. We cannot list all prepositions, but some important groups are:
Verb + Preposition
depend on lead to
Adjective/Participle + Preposition
surprised at famous for
Noun + Preposition
example of possibility of
Other Combinations with Prepositions
as a result of in addition to
Prepositions of Time and Place
on May in Washington
Prepositions in Common Expressions
at present in general

78. VERB + PREPOSITION
account for contribute to insist on plan on
believe in depend on lead to rely on
belong to detach from obtain from result in
confined to fight for overcome by withdraw from
ADJECTIVE/PARTICIPLE + PREPOSITION
accustomed to different from necessary for responsible for
afraid of expert at opossed to successful in
based on free from possible for surprised at
compared to famous for related to typical of
NOUN + PREPOSITION
cause of equivalent of influence on result of
cost of evidence of need for use of
danger of example of possibility of solution to
effect on increase in reason for supply of

79. OTHER COMBINATIONS WITH PREPOSITIONS
according to in the process of
as a consequence of in view of
as a result of on account of
because of on behalf of
by means of on the basis of
in addition to prior to
in spite of with the exception of
in terms of with the purpose of
PREPOSITIONS IN COMMON EXPRESSIONS
at times by land/sea/air
at present by far
at first/last by chance
at the moment by accident
by day/night
in common on fire
in general on the other hand
in existence on the whole
in the future/past on purpose
in theory on land

80. PREPOSITIONS OF TIME AND PLACE
at time of day (at 8 a.m.)
noon, night midnight
in parts of the day (in the morning/evening/afternoon)
month (in July)
season (in the fall)
year (in 1980)
decade (in the 1980s)
century (in the nineteenth century)
on days of the week (on Monday)
dates (on March 20)
for/since duration of time (for three days)
point in time (since March 20)
from to from beginning time to ending (from 8 a.m. to 5 p.m.)

81. PREPOSITIONS OF TIME AND PLACE
Prepositions of Place
at address (at 200 Main Street)
on street/road/avenue (on Kings Road)
in building (in the drugstore)
city (in Los Angeles)
state (in California)
country (in Japan)
continent (in Africa)
from to from beginning point to ending point (from Alaska to California)

82. Skill 56-57: Problems with Prepositions
Sometimes an incorrect preposition is given in a sentence in the Written Expression section of the TOEFL test.
The game was called on because of the rain.
It must be called off – (canceled)
I knew I could count in you to do a good job.
It must be count on someone
Sometimes a necessary preposition has been omitted from a sentence in the Written Expression section of the TOEFL test.
Can you wait me after the game.
It should be: wait for me.
I plan attending the meeting.
It should be: plan on attending.

83. Skill 58: Distinguish Make and Do
Make and Do can be confused in English because their meanings are so similar.
Make often has the idea of creating or constructing. The following expressions show some of the possible uses of make:
She likes to make her own clothes.
Would you like to make a cake for dessert?
If you make a mistake, you should correct it.
He was unable to make a response to the threat.

84. This morning she did all the dishes.
Do often has the idea of completing or performing. The following expressions show some of the possible uses of do:
This morning she did all the dishes.
The students are doing assignments.
The janitors did the work they were assigned.
You can do your laundry at the laundromat.
Many uses of make and do are idiomatic and therefore
difficult to classify.

85. Skill 59: Distinguish like, alike, unlike, and dislike
Like, alike, unlike and dislike sometimes are confused because they look so similar but they have many different uses.
1) Like and alike
John and Tom are alike.
John and Tom worked in a like manner.
As you see like and alike are adjectives that have similar meaning.
Alike is a predicate adjective, so we can only use it after a linking verb.
Like is used immediately before a noun so it is an adjective form.

86. 2) Like and unlike
Jonh is like Tom.
John is unlike Tom.
Here both words have opposite meanings, they are working as prepositions so they must be followed by objects.
The prepositions like and unlike can also be used at the beginning of a sentence.
3) Like and dislike
John and Tom like the course.
John and Tom dislike the course.
Here both words are written as verbs, so they are used with subjects.

87. SKILL 60: DINTINGUISH OTHER, ANOTHER, AND OTHERS
To decide how to use other, another or others, we must consider three things:
1.- If it is singular or plural.
2.- If it is definite (the) or indefinite (a).
3.- If it is an adjective ( it appears with a noun) or if it is a pronoun (it appears by itself).

88. SINGULAR PLURAL INDEFINITE DEFINITE I have another book.
I have other books.
I have others.
DEFINITE
I have the other book.
I have the other.
I have the other books.
I have the others.